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ElTMULOGiCAL CHART OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 



PARTICIPIAL 



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THE SCIENCE OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 

A 

PRACTICAL GRAMMAR; 

IN WHICH 

WORDS, PHRASES, AND SENTENCES 

ARE CLASSIFIED 

ACCORDING TO THEIR OFFICES, AND THEIR RELATION TO EACH OTHER. 

ILLUSTRATED BY 

A 

COMPLETE SYSTEM OF DIAGRAMS. 

" Speech is the body of thought." 

jtjjm 1 

BY S J ' W. CLAR K, A. M., 

Principal of East Bloomrleld Academy. 

NEW YORK: 
PUBLISHED BY A. S. BARNES & CO., 

51 JOHN STREET. 

CINCINNATI: 'M 

DERBY, BRADLEY & CO. 
1847. 



CI 



Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1847, by 

S. W. CLARK, 

in the Clerk's Office of the District Court for the North- 
ern District of New York. 



Stereotyped by C. Davison & Co., 33 Gold St. 



PREFACE. 



The Grammar of a Language, Gluinctilian has justly remarked, is 
like the foundation of a building ; the most important part, although out 
of sight, and not always properly valued by those most interested in its 
condition. 

In the opinion of many modern educators there is a tendency, on the 
part of all, to neglect this important branch of English Education — not so 
much from a conviction that the science is not important, as that there is 
a radical defect in the common method of presenting it to the attention of 
the scholar. This was the sentiment of the Author when, some ten years 
since, he was called to the supervision of a Literary Institution in which 
was established a department for the education of Teachers. Accordingly 
a recourse was had to oral instruction, and for the convenience of teach- 
ers a manuscript grammar was prepared, which embodied the principles 
of the science and the Author's mode of presenting it. These principles 
and this method have been properly tested by numerous and advanced 
classes during the seven years last past. The manuscript has in the mean 
time from continued additions unexpectedly grown to a book. It has 
received the favorable notice of teachers, and its publication has been, by 
teachers, repeatedly solicited. To these solicitations the Author is con- 
strained to yield, and in the hope and belief that the work will " add to 
the stock of human knowledge,'"' or at least tend to that result, by giving 
an increased interest to the study of the English Language, it is with 
diffidence submitted to the public. 

In revising the work for publication, an effort has been made to render 
it simple in style, comprehensive in matter, adapted to the capacities of 
the younger pupil, and to the wants of the more advanced scholar. It is 
confidently believed that the Method of teaching Grammar herein sug- 
gested is the true method. The method adopted by most text-books may 
be well suited to the wants* of foreigners in first learning our language. 
They need first, to learn our Alphabet — the powers and sounds, and the 
proper combinations of letters — the definition of words and their classifi- 



IV PREFACE. 

cation according to definitions. But the American youth is presumed to 
know all this, and be able to catch the thought conveyed by an English 
sentence — in fine, to be able to use practically the language before he 
attempts to study it as a science. Instead, therefore, of beginning with the 
Alphabet, and wasting his energies on technical terms and ambiguous 
words, he should be required to deal with thought as conveyed by sen- 
tences. Accordingly this introduction to the Science of Language begins 
with a Sentence, properly constructed, and investigates its structure by 
developing the offices of the words which compose it ; making the office 
rather than the form of a word determine the class to which it belongs. 

As an important auxiliary in the analysis of Sentences a system of 
Diagrams has been invented and introduced in the work. It is not claim- 
ed for the Diagrams that they constitute any essential part of the Science 
of Language — nor do Geometrical Diagrams constitute such a part of the 
Science of Geometry ; Maps, of Geography ; or figures, of Arithmetic. But 
it will not be denied that these are of great service in the study of those 
branches. Experience has established their importance. 

Let then the use of Diagrams, reduced as they are here to a complete 
system, be adopted in the analyses of Sentences, and it is believed that 
teachers will confess that their utility is as obvious in the science of Lan- 
guage, as it is in the science of Magnitude ; and for precisely the same 
reason, that an abstract truth is made tangible, the eye is permitted te 
assist the mind, the memory is relieved that the judgment may have a 
full charter of all the mental powers. 

Conscious that novelty as such should not bear sway in the investiga- 
tions of Science, the Author has been careful neither to depart from the 
ordinary method of presenting the Science, for the sake of novelty ; nor 
has he from dread of novelty rejected manifest improvements. The old 
Nomenclature is retained, not because a better could not be proposed, but 
because the advantages to be gained would not compensate for the con- 
fusion necessarily consequent to such a change. But the terms purely 
technical have been introduced as a natural inference from facts previously 
deduced. Principles and Definitions are preceded by such Remarks as 
have fully established their propriety. The inductive method of arriving 
at truth has been followed throughout — with that it stands or falls. 

East Bloomfield Academy, \ 
October, 1847. J 



INTRODUCTORY EXERCISE. 



" God moves in a mysterious way, 
His wonders to perform ; 
He plants his footsteps in the sea, 
And rides upon the storm." 

Quest. Who is the person concerning whom something is asserted 

in the lines above ? 
Ans. Something is said concerning " God." 

What is said of God ? 
A. u God moves. 

How does God move ? 
A* u In a mysterious way." 

What jtvay 1 
A. a Mysterious way." 

What mysterious way % 
A. a A mysterious way." 

" God moves in a mysterious way "- — why 1 
A. " His wonders to 'perform" 

To perform what wonders % 
A. u His wonders." 

Concerning what is something more said ? 
A. Something more is said concerning " God" 

"Why do you think so % 
A. Because, in this connection, " He " means God. 

What is said concerning God % 
A. " He plants" 

He plants what ? 
A. "Footsteps." 



6 PART L— INTRODUCTORY EXERCISE. 

Q. What footsteps ■? 
A " His footsteps." 

He plants his footsteps— where ? 
A " 7» tfAe 5ga." 

In what sea 2 
A "TAesea." 

What more is said of God 9 
it. Hebrides." 

Rides /i?Aer£ ? 
A " £/p<m the storm? 1 

Upon 7£A&£ storm ? 
A " 2%e storm." 

In the lines above, what is the use or office of the word 
"God?" 
A. It is used as the name of the being who " moves" 

What is the use of the word u moves ?" 
A To tell what God does. 

Use of " in a mysterious way V* 
A. To tell how God moves. 

Use of " a ?" 
A To tell what way. 

Use of " mysterious ?" 
.4. To tell what kind of way. 

Use of " way ?» 
A. As the name of the thing in which God moves. 

Use of " his ?" 
A. To tell what or whose wonders. 

Use of " wonders." 
A. As the name of the things which God moves to perform. 

Use of " to perform wonders ?" 
A. To tell wherefore God moves in a mysterious way. 

Use of "he?" 
A. As a substitute for the name of Him who plants and rides 

Use of " plants ?" 



INTRODUCTORY EXERCISE. 7 

A. To tell what " He " does. 

Use of " his V 
A. To tell whose footsteps. 

Use of "footsteps?" 
A. To tell what he plants. 

Use of "in the sea?" 
A. To tell where " he plants his footsteps." 

Use of " the ?" 
A. To tell what sea. 

Use of "sea?" 
A. As the name of the thing in which he plants his footsteps. 

Use of "and?" 
A. To add a second thing which He does. 

Use of " rides ?" 
A. To tell what he does. 

Use of " upon the storm ?" 
A. To tell where he rides. 

Use of "the?" 
A. To tell what storm. 

Use of " storm ?" 
A. As the name of the thing upon which he rides. 

Remark.— -The young Pupil has seen in this exposition of 
the four lines written above, that words have meaning, and that 
when they are properly put together, they convey the thoughts 
of the person who wrote them, to those who read them. 

Again : As these and all other words have appropriate sounds 
attached to them, they may be spoken ; and persons who hear 
them, may have the same thoughts that they would have on 
reading them. 

It is plain, then, that one may, by speaking or by writing, 
(and sometimes by motions,) communicate his thoughts to 
others. The process by which this is done, is called Language. 



PART I. LANGUAGE— GRAMMAR. 



LANGUAGE, 

Definition !• Language is the expression of 
thought and feeling. 

Remark. It is customary to give to every science a name, by which it 
may be distinguished from other sciences; accordingly, people have 
agreed to call the science which treats of Language, 

GRAMMAR. 

Deft 2t Grammar is the Science of Language. 

English Grammar is the Science which investigates the prin- 
ciples and determines the proper construction of the English 
Language. 

It is also the Art of communicating thought by proper words. 

Rem* Language consists in articulate sounds, represented by Letters, 
combined into Words, properly arranged in Sentences. 

Deft 3t A Letter is a mark used to indicate a 
sound, or to modify the sound of another letter. 

Rem* The science which treats of Letters, is called Orthography. 

Deft 4t A Word is a combination of letters, 
used as the sign of an idea. 

Examples — God — mysterious — perform — wonders. 
Rem* Words are combined into Phrases and Sentences. 

Deft 5# A Phrase Is two or more words, pro- 
perly arranged, not constituting a distinct propo- 
sition. 

Examples — " In a mysterious way " — -" Upon the storm" 

Rem* Words constitute a Phrase, when they collectively perform a 
distinct, individual office. 

Deft 6t A Sentence is an assemblage of words, 
so arranged as to express a fact. 

Examples — " God moves in a mysterious way." 
Rem* A Sentence always constitutes a distinct proposition. 



CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS. 



WORDS. 

A Word is a combination of letters, used as the 
sign of an idea. 

CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS. 

Remark. In a Discourse, words are used 

1. As names of persons, places, or things. 

2. As substitutes for names or facts. 

3. As qualifiers of names. 

4. To assert a fact, i. e. t an act, being, or state. 

5. To modify an assertion or qualifier. 

6. To express relations of things or thoughts. 

7. To introduce — or connect words and sentences. 

8. To express a sudden emotion. 
Hence — in respect to their uses, 

Principle* Words are distinguished as 



1. JVouns, 

2. PronourtSj 

3. Adjectives, 

4. Verbs, 



5. Adverbs, 

6. Prepositions, 

7. Conjunctions, and 

8. Exclamations. 



Def. 7. A Noun is a word used as the name 
of a being, place, or thing*. 

Examples — God — man — sea — way- — wonders. 

Def. 8. A Pronoun is a word used for a noun. 

Examples — he — it — who — her — him — whom. 

Def. 9. An Adjective is a word used to qualify 
or otherwise describe a noun or pronoun. 

Examples — Mysterious [way] — His [wonders] — the [storm.] 

Def. 10. A Verb is a word used to express an 
act, being, or state of a noun or pronoun. 

Examples — [God] moves— [He] plants. 
1* 



10 PART I. WORDS. PHRASES. 

Deft lit An Adverb is a word used to modify 
the signification of a verb, an adjective, or another 
modifier. 

Examples- — [He writes] well — very [good boys.] 

Def# 12. A Preposition is a word used to ex- 
press a relation of other words to each other. 
Examples — [moves] in [way] — [Books are] on [the table.] 

Def« 13* A Conjunction is a word used to in- 
troduce a sentence, or to connect other words. 

Examples — And [can I leave thee] — [Henry] and [Homer 
came.] 

Def# 14. An Exclamation is a word used to 
express a sudden emotion. 

Examples — O ! [Liberty] — Ah ! [the treasure.] 

Note. — Words are often used for rhetorical purposes merely 
— having no direct, grammatical construction. Hence, 

Def. 15. Words of Euphony are words used 
only for the sake of sound. 

Obs. — They are used — 

1. To render other words emphatic. 

As, " John and Homer, and even Henry, came to the Lecture." 
" The moon herself is lost in heaven." — Ossian. 

2. To introduce a sentence — 

As, " Come, pass along." " Now then, we are prepared to 
take up the main question." " There are no idlers here." 

3. To preserve the Rhythm in a line in poetry — 
As, a I sit me down a pensive hour to spend." 

PHRASES. 

A Phrase is two or more words properly ar- 
ranged, not constituting a distinct proposition. 

CLASSIFICATION OF ^PHRASES. 

Rem* — Phrases are used as substitutes for nouns, adjectives, and ad- 
verbs : or, they are independent in their construction. Hence, 



CLASSIFICATION OF PHRASES. 11 



Prim Phrases are distinguished as — 



1. Substantive. 

2. Adjective. 



3. Adverbial. 

4. Independent. 



Def. 16t A Substantive Phrase is a phrase used 
as the subject or object of a verb, or the object of a 
preposition. 

Example — To obey God [is the highest duty of man.] 

Deft 17. An Adjective Phrase is a phrase used 
to qualify a noun or pronoun. 

Example — {The lips] of the wise [dispense knowledge.] 

Def. 18. An Adverbial Phrase is a phrase used 
to modify the signification of a verb, adjective, or 
adverb. 

Example — [God moves] in a mysterious way. 

Deft 19# An Independent Phrase is a phrase not 
joined to any other word going before in con- 
struction. 

Example — The hour having arrived, [we commenced the ex- 
ercises.] 

Prin. — By their forms, phrases are classified as — Preposi- 
tional, Infinitive, Participial, and Independent. 

Def. 19, a. — A Prepositional Phrase is introduced by a pre- 
position having a noun, or a word used for a noun, as its object 
of relation. 

As, " In a mysterious way." 

Def. 19, b.— An Infinitive Phrase is introduced by the pre- 
position to, having a verb as its object of relation. 

As, To love — to study — to be diligent. 

Def. 19, c. — A Participial Phrase is introduced by a parti- 
ciple, and commonly has one or more adjuncts, or objects of an 
action. 

As, Scaling yonder peak — wheeling near its brow. 

Def. 19, d. — An Independent Phrase is introduced by a noun 
or pronoun followed by a participle depending upon it. 
As, John having lost one lesson, the prize was given to Henry. 



12 PART I. — SENTENCES. 

SENTENCES. 

A sentence is an assemblage of words, so ar- 
ranged as to express a fact. 

ANALYSIS OF A SENTENCE. 

Prill, A sentence is composed of — 

1 . The Principal parts, 

2. The Adjuncts. 

Def. 20. The principal parts of a sentence, are 
those words which are necessary to express the 
unqualified assertion. 

Examples — God moves — He plants footsteps [and] rides. 

Priih The principal parts of a sentence, are — 
The Subject, \ The Predicate, \ The Object. 

Note.— Every sentence must have a subject and predicate, ex- 
pressed or understood. 

Def* 21. The Subject of a sentence, is that, con- 
cerning which something is asserted. 

Obs. It is always a noun, or a word, phrase, or sentence, 
used for a noun. It may be — 

1. A Word — as, God exists — knowledge is power — man lives — science 
promotes happiness — birds fly — John* saws wood. 

2. A Phrase — To be, contents his natural desire — to do good, is the duty 
of all men — his being a minister, prevented his rising to civil power. 

" Compelling children to sit erect for a long time, is an evil prac- 
tice." — Cutter. 

3. A Sentence — " That all men are created equal, is a self-evident truth." 

Def. 22* The Predicate of a sentence, is the word 
or words that express what is affirmed of the sub- 
ject. 

Obs. — It is always a verb, and may have added to it another 



* In the example, " John saws wood," John is the subject, because that 
word is the name of the person concerning whom something is asserted. 



SENTENCES ANALYSIS. 13 

verb, a pronoun, a participle, an adjective, a noun, or a prepo- 
sition. 

1. A Verb only — John saws* wood — God exists — birds fly — he rides — Ani- 
mals run. 

2. A Verb and Verb — I shall go — I do remember. 

3. A Verb and a Participle — John was injured — the house is being built 
— the legions were bought and sold — James is improving. 

4. A Verb and an Adjective — They looked beautiful — he became poor — 
soldiers waxed valiant — John is sleepy. 

4. A Verb and a Noun — God is love — Friend is treasure. 

5. A Verb and a Preposition — " Its idle hopes are o'er" — " the rnounte- 
bank was laughed at.'' 

Obs. — The logical predicate of a sentence properly includes 
the object : but in a treatise on Grammar, it is proper to treat 
of the object as a distinct part of the sentence. 

Sef. 23. The Object of a sentence, is the word 
or words on which the action, asserted by the pre- 
dicate, terminates. 

Obs. — It is always a noun, or a word, phrase, or sentence, 
used for a noun. It may be — 

1. A Word — John saws v:ood-f — I have seen him — feed the hungry — M He 
saith among the trumpets, Ha ! ha .'" 

2. A Phrase — I regret his being absent — his being a minister prevented 
his rising to civil power. 

3. A Sentence — And God said. Let there be light — The fool hath said in 
his heart, There is no God — I thought / heard a voice cry, Sleep no more. 

Obs. 1. — A Prepositional Phrase always has an object of re- 
lation expressed or understood. 

Examples — In a mysterious way — We are fond of walking — and of 
studying; grammar — Boys love to skate — "We love to please our parents. 

Obs. 2. — When the object of relation is a transitive verb or 
a participle, it commonly has an object of an action. 

Examples — We love to please our parents — We are fond of studying 
grammar. 

Obs. 3.— A Participial Phrase has an object of an action, 
when the participle is transitive. 

Examples — Scaling yonder peak — Mr. Hammond, having acquired a 
fortune, has retired from business. 

* " Saws" is the grammatical predicate of i: John," because that 
word denotes the act of John. " Saws wood" is the logical predicate, be- 
cause those two words express the complete proposition, 

f In the example, i: John saws wood," wood is the object of saws, be- 
cause that word is the name of the thing on which the action expressed 
by " saws" terminates. 



14 PART I.— SENTENCES — -ANALYSIS. 

EXAMPLES OF SENTENCES. 
Animals run. 



C ANIMALS ^V" RUN. ^) 



Quest Concerning what is something here declared ? 

Ans. Something is declared concerning " animals." 

Q. What is said of " animals P } 

4, They " run." 

Q. Those two words thus placed form what ? 

A. A sentence — for it is u an assemblage of words, so arranged 
as to assert a fact." 

" Animals run J 1 

Q. In this sentence, for what is the word " animals" used ? 

A. It is used to tell what " run." 

Q. For what is the word " run" used ? 

A. To tell what u animals" do. 

" Animals run." 

" Every sentence must have a Subject and a Predicate." 

Q. In this sentence what is the Subject ? 

A. " Animals" — for it is the name of the things " concerning 
which something is asserted." 

Q. What is the Predicate ? 

A. " Run" — because it is the word that " expresses what is 
affirmed of the subject." 

Let the pupil give an exposition of the following additional 
Examples. 



Waters are running. 

Mary is reading. 

Winter has come. 

Resources are developed. 

Corn is harvested. 

Wheat has been sown. 

Mountains have been elevated. 
Lessons should have been studied. 
Recitations could have been omitted. 
He might have been respected. 

Rem. — In the last example, the four words, "might have been re- 
spected," constitute the Predicate of " he." 



Birds fly. 
Fishes swim. 
Horses gallop. 
Lightnings flash. 
Thunders roll. 
Girls sing. 
Boys play. 



SENTENCES ANALYSIS. 15 

John is sleepy. 
2. 



(~ JOHN "yCj^ SLEEPY. ^) 

A Sentence — because it is " an assemblage of words, so ar- 
ranged as to assert a fact." 

ANALYSIS. 

u John" is the subject — for it is the name of the person " con- 
cerning whom something is asserted." 

u Is sleepy" is the predicate — for these two words " express 
what is affirmed of the subject." 

Rem. — In a limited sense, a verb may be said to qualify or describe 
its subject. 

Examples — John sleeps. 

Here "sleeps" describes a condition of " John." 

John is sleeping. 

Here "is sleeping" asserts a condition of "John." 

John is sleepy. 
In this sentence, " is sleepy" asserts a condition as definitely as do 
the words, " is sleeping .*" and the genius of the language requires the 
word " sleeping" to be added to the verb " is," in order to express the fact 
intended; so the other fact concerning "John" requires the word 
" sleepy" to be added to the verb " is." The sentence is not, sleeping 
John is — i. e. exists ; nor is the other, sleepy John is — i. e. exists ; but 
" John is sleeping" and " John is sleepy." " Sleeping" is a participle, in 
predication with " is." " Sleepy" is an adjective, in predication with " is" 

gy* Let the Pupil, in like manner, construe and place in Diagrams 
the following additional 

Examples. 

Velvet feels smooth. 



William is diligent. 
James was weary. 
Flowers are beautiful. 
Mountains are elevated. 



Robert has become poor. 
I felt languid. 
Soldiers waxed valiant. 



" His palsied hand wax'd strong." — Wilson. 
" All earth-born cares are wrong." — Anon. 
" The war is actually begun." — Henry. 
" The rolling year is full of thee." 
" The very streams look languid from afar." 
" The sun looked bright, the morning after." — Sterne. 
" Vanity often renders man contemptible." 
" When his weak hand grew palsied, and his eye 
Dark with the mists of age, [it was his time to die.]' — Bryant. 



16 PART I.— SENTENCES ANALYSIS. 

God is Love. 

3. 



( ^ GOD y I S LOYE, ") 

A Sentence, See Definition 6. 

ANALYSIS. 

" God," the Subject, See Definition 21. 

" Is Love," the Predicate* - - See Definition 22. 

Other Examples. 

Ye are benefactors. 

We are friends. 

Clouds are vapor. 

Homer and Henry are students. 



u We are slaves." 
" Man is miracle." 
Thou art Peter. 
Quadrupeds are beasts. 



ADJUNCTS. 

Fern. — If I say, Students deserve approbation, 1 make an "unqualified 
assertion" — applicable to all students, and to the approbation of all per- 
sons. But if I say, Diligent students deserve the approbation of their teacher y 
I speak only of a particular class of students — and of approbation, as 
limited to a particular source; for the word " student" is limited by the 
word " diligent;" and the word " approbation" by the word " the" and by 
the phrase "of their teacher ." These words and phrases are necessary, 
not to make the sentence, but to perfect the sense ; they are joined to other 
words, and are therefore called adjuncts. 

Deft 24. An Adjunct is a word, phrase, or sen- 
tence, used to qualify or define another word, 
phrase, or sentence. 

1. Word — " We were walking homeward" Whither? 

2. Phrase — " We were walking toward home" Whither % 

3. Sentence — " They kneeled before they fought" When ? 
Obs. — Some adjuncts are used to qualify the principal parts 

of a sentence, others to qualify other adjuncts. Hence, 
Adjuncts are Primary and Secondary. 

Dcf. 25c A Primary Adjunct is used to qualify 
one of the principal parts of a sentence. 



* God is the name of a being — Love is a name of an attribute of 
that being. " Is Love," expresses a fact concerning God ; and that fact 
cannot well be expressed without these two words thus combined. 



SENTENCES ANALYSIS. 



17 



Examples — The boy studies diligently — You have come late 
— " Our national resources" — Joh?i 1 s book is lost. 

Deft 26. A Secondary Adjunct is used to qua- 
lify another adjunct. 

Examples — The boy studies very diligently — You have come 
too late. 

Obs. — Adjuncts are adjectives or adverbs, or they are phrases 
and sentences used adjectively or adverbially. 

SENTENCES WITH THEIR ADJUNCTS. 

" Our national resources are developed by an earnest 

culture of the arts of peace" 

(4-) 




ARE DEVELOPE 



D 



CULTURE 
\^AN^ EARNEST J 



X \ 



ARTS J \\ 

\T\the )\\ \ "*"'"-0 \\ 

- ,"<~i rfe^ 



Quest. Concerning what is an assertion here made ? 
Ans. Concerning u resources?'' 

What is asserted of " resources ?" 
A, Resources " are developed." 

What resources are developed ? 
A. " National 11 resources. 

What national resources ? 
A. u Our" national resources. 

How are our national resources developed? 
A. u By an earnest culture of the arts of peace" 

By what culture ? 
A. By " earnest" culture. 

What earnest culture ? 
A. " An" earnest culture. 

What special culture ? 
A. Culture " of the arts of peace" 

Of what arts 7 
A. " The" arts " of peace." 



18 FART I. SENTENCES ANALYSIS. 

In the above sentence what is the 

use of " Our %" Ans. To define some particular national 

resources. 
" "national?"- - - - A. To tell what resources. 
" " resources V - - - A. et what are developed. 
" " are developed 1" = - A. " what is said of resources. 
" " bv an earnest culture > . ,, i , 7 * 

of the arts of peace V \ A ' how reso * rces are developed. 

" "an?" A. " what earnest culture, 

" " earnest ?"---- a. " what culture. 

" " of the arts of peace 7" A " what species of culture. 

" "the?" 4. " what arte. 

" "of peace?"- - - - A. " what species of arts. 
Quest. "What are the principal parts of this sentence ? 
Ans. " Resources are developed" — -they " express the unqualified assertion." 

What is the Subject ? 
A. " Resources" — it is the name of that, " concerning which something 
is affirmed." 
What is the Predicate ? 
A. " Are developed" — they " express what is affirmed of the subject." 

What are the Adjuncts of " resources ?" 
A. " Our" and " national" 

What are the Adjuncts of " are developed 7" 
A. The complex phrase, " by an earnest culture of the arts of peace." 

What are the Adjuncts of " culture ?" 
A. The words, " an" and " earnest" and the phrase, " of the arts of peace." 

What are the Adjuncts of " arts ?" 
A. The word, " the" and the phrase, " of peace" 

DIAGRAMS, 

Priih The office of a word in a sentence, deter- 
mines its position in the diagram, according 1 to the 
following* 

GENERAL RULES. 

Rule 1. The principal parts of a sentence are placed upper- 
most, and on the same horizontal line ; as 1, 2, 3. 

2. The Subject of a sentence takes the first place ; as 1. 

3. The Predicate is placed to the right of the subject — 
attached; as 2 — 7 — 11 — 26 

4. The Object is placed to the right of the predicate ; as 3. 
The object of a phrase is placed to the right of the word 

which introduces the phrase ; as 22 to the right of 2 1 . 

5. A word, phrase, or sentence, is placed beneath the word 
which it qualifies ; as 4 and 5 qualify 1, — (25, 26, x) qualify 22. 

6. A word used to introduce a phrase, is- placed beneath the 
word which the phrase qualifies — having its object to the right 



DIAGRAMS. 19 

and connecting both; as 15 connecting 12 and 16 — 21 connect- 
ing 3 and 22. 

7. A word used only to connect, is placed between the two 
words connected ; as 10 between 7 and 11 ; and a word used to 
introduce a sentence, is placed above the predicate of the sen- 
tence, and attached to it by a line ; as above 2. 

8. A word relating back to another word, is attached to the 
antecedent by a line ; as 6 attached to 1, and x to 22. 

(5) 






G_S 



idi 






k=|j> OEDCjlD 






Explanation of the preceding Diagram. 

— Introduces a sentence, Kule 7. 

£> . . j C 1— Subject, " 2. 

Pnnc f* Z ? 2-Predieate of 1, "3. 

parts. ^ 3 _objectof2. - "4. 
4 and 5 individually, and 6 to 19 inclusive, 

collectively, qualify or define 1, - - "5. 

6 — Subject of 7 and 11, and relates to 1, - "2 and 8. 

7— Predicate of 6. "3. 

8 and 9— Modify 7, "5. 

10— Connects 7 and 11, "7. 

1 l_Predicate of 6, " 3. 

12— Object of 11, "4. 

13,14,(15, 16, 17, 18, 19)— Qualify or define 12, " 5. 

20 and (21, 22, 23, 24)— Qualify or define 3, " 5. 

21 — Shows a relation of 3 and 22, - - - " 6. 

22— Object of 21, "4. 

23, 24, (25, 26, x)— Qualify or define 22, - " 5. 

25— Subject of 26 "2. 

26— Predicate of 25, "3. 

x — Object (understood) of 26 and relating 

to 22, « 4 and 8. 



20 PART I. SENTENCES CLASSIFICATION. 

CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES. 

Rem* — -Some sentences assert the being, condition, or state, of a person 
or thing — or an action which does not terminate on an object. Others 
assert an action which terminates on an object. 

Some sentences assert but one fact ; others, more. Some assert an in- 
dependent, or a principal proposition; others, a secondary, or qualifying 
proposition. Hence, 

Prin» Sentences are distinguished as— 
Intransitive or Transitive, 
Simple or Compound, 

Principal or Auxiliary, 
Deft 27# An Intransitive Sentence asserts being", 
condition, or state— or an act which does not ter- 
minate on an object. 

Examples— I am— William sleeps — James is weary — Ani- 
mals run — Cora sings sweetly — God is Love. 

Obs.— An Intransitive Sentence contains one or more sub- 
jects and predicates, but no object. 

Def. 28» A Transitive Sentence asserts an act 
which terminates on an object. 

Examples — -Birds built nests— Bring flowers — John and Den- 
nis saw wood — Jane studies Grammar and Botany — <c The king 
of shadows loves a shining mark." 

Obs. — A Transitive Sentence has at least one subject, one 
predicate, and one object. 

Deft 29. A Simple Sentence asserts but one 
proposition. 

Obs. — It asserts but one fact concerning one person or thing. 
Hence, it contains but one subject, and one predicate, and (if 
transitive) one object. 

Examples — Birds fly — John is studious— Resources are developed. 

Note. — Two or more simple sentences, distinct in grammatical con- 
struction, may have a logical connection. Such a collection of sentences 
is properly called a Period. 

" Wheat grows in the field — and men reap it." 

" A friend exaggerates a man's virtues — an enemy his crimes." 

Deft 30. A Compound Sentence asserts two or 
more propositions. 



SENTENCES CLASSIFICATION. 21 

Obs. — It asserts two or more facts concerning one or more 
persons or things. 

As, Henry studies and recites grammar. 

Or it asserts one or more facts concerning two or more per- 
sons or things. 

As, Homer and Henry study grammar. 

Or it asserts one act of one person or thing which terminates 
on two or more objects. 

As, Henry studies grammar and arithmetic. 

Hence, a compound sentence contains two or more subjects, 
or predicates, or objects. 

Def. 30, a. — The parts of a compound sentence are called 
clauses. 

Obs. — The compound clauses may be — 

-^ 1. The subjects — As, Homer and Henry study 
_J grammar, 
i 2. The predicates — Henry studies and recites 

— ^- - ^ ^ grammar. 

I X J n I 3. The objects — Henry studies grammar and 

**** -* arithmetic. 

Rem.— Sentences which have compound predicates, often have objects 
applicable to only a part of them. Hence, 

Def. 30, b. — A compound sentence having one or more 
transitive, and one or more intransitive clauses, is a Mixed 
Sentence. 

(7.) 

~Z~J* Examples — Time slept on flowers, and lent his glass 

to Hope. 




C~ " ^ nv/i ,j * The stars will then lift up their heads and rejoice. 

Note. — A compound sentence is not " a union of two or more simple 
sentences." : < Wheat grows in the field, and men reap it." Here are 
two simple sentences, independent of each other, so far as the grammati- 
cal construction of them is concerned. The latter sentence is simply 
added to the former — and its proximity alone determines the word for 
which the word " iV is substituted. 

Nor is a compound sentence always " made up of parts of two or more 
simple sentences." Oxygen and Hydrogen form water. We may not 
say— Oxygen forms water and Hydrogen forms water ; but as the two 
things, Oxygen and Hydrogen, must be joined chemically before they can 
form water, so the two words, " Oxygen" and u Hydrogen," must be joined 
in construction, before the " subject of the sentence" is complete. 

A compound sentence has at least one member of one of the principal 
parts common to two or more members of another of the principal parts, 
[See Examples above.] 



&?u 



22 PART I. SENTENCES CLASSIFICATION. 

Deft 81 • A Principal Sentence asserts an inde- 
pendent or principal proposition : as, 

(8.) 
j ^ " A mortal disease was upon her vitals." 

Deft 32t An Auxiliary Sentence expresses a 
qualifying- assertion : as, 

(9.) 

" A mortal disease was upon her vitals, 
before Ccesar had passed the Rubicon." 

Note. — An auxiliary sentence is an adjunct of a sentence, 
phrase, or word, going before in construction ; or it is used as a 
substitute for a noun. Hence, 

Print Auxiliary sentences are distinguished as 

Substantive, Adjective, and Adverbial. 
Def. 32, a. — A Substantive Sentence is used as the subject or 
object of a verb: as, 

(10.) 





" That good men sometimes commit faults can- 



not be denied." 



Much learning shows how little mortals 
know.' 

Note. — A sentence is sometimes used independently in con- 
struction, although explanatory of another : as, 

" It echoed his text, Take heed how ye hear." 

Def. 32, b. — An Adjective Sentence is used to qualify a noun 
or pronoun : as, 
(11.) 

I ""A-A^f u jj e ■ffafi g e tteth wisdom, ioveth his own soul." 

CZDCZZXZZ) 



Def. 32, e. — An Adverbial Sentence is used to modify the sig- 
nification of a Verb, Adjective, or Adverb : as, 
(12.) 

T > 

Where wealth and freedom reign, contentment fails." 



S=3 " 



SENTENCES — CLASSIFICATION ANALYSIS. 23 

Def. S3# A principal sentence, ivith its auxiliary 
sentences, constitutes a Complex sentence. 

'• He hears the thunder ere the tempest lowers." 
[See Examples attached t© Diagrams 9, 10, 11, and 12.] 

1. " The king of sliadows loves a shining mark.'' 1 

(13.) 



X 



KING I LOVES Y MARK 




A simple sentence — transitive, - - - - See defs. 28 and 29. 

ANALYSIS. 

t, - - 7 C King — Subject, - - - 

P arts - ) Mark-Object, - - - 

, ,. A Ofshadows | Ad J uncts 0f *"« " 
Adjuncts. < l x ; 

qi • • > Adjuncts of mar k, " 
• Let the construction of this sentence be written on the black-board. 



a 


a 


21. 


it 


it 


22. 


a 


u 


23. 


it 


u 


24. 




u 


24. 



Other Examples applicable to the same Diagram. 

2. The science of Geology illustrates many astonishing facts. 
§gp Let the Analysis of this sentence be written on the black-board. 

Construction. 

Words. Use. Class. Def. 

The, - - - limits " science," 

Science, - - agent of the action expressed by " illustrates." 

Of, - - - - expresses a relation of" science" and " geology.' 

Geology, - - object of the relation expressed by " of." 

Illustrates, - expresses the action performed by " science." 

Many, - - limits " facts." 
Astonishing, qualifies " facts." 

Facts, - - - object of the action expressed by " illustrates." 

3. A love for study secures our intellectual improvement. 

4. The habit of intemperance produces much lasting misery. 

5. A desire for improvement should possess all our hearts. 

6. The use of tobacco degrades many good men. 

7. A house on fire presents a melancholy spectacle. 

8. A man of refinement will adopt no disgusting habit. 
jy Let each pupil make a sentence adapted to the above diagram. 



Adj, 

Noun, 


*9. 

7. 


Prep, 
Noun, 


12. 

7. 


Verb. 


10. 


Adj, 
Adj, 
Noun, 


9. 
9. 

7. 



24 PART I. SENTENCES CLASSIFICATION. 

1. "In the beginning God created the heaven and 
the earth" 

C\/*~* S T heaven J 

GOD Y CREATED ) ^J£^J (fiTf 
^ /V__^ ^ / EARTH- ) 



JL 



BEGINNING 



THE 



A compound sentence — transitive, Def.* 



P 



ANALYSIS. 

r God— Subject, " 

Created — Predicate, " 



a 



>rincjpal\ Heayen 

*****' I [and] \ Objects, « 

[Earth ) 
In the beginning — Adjunct of created, - - " 
The — Adjunct of heaven, S 

The — Adjunct of earth, 

Construction, 

Words. Use. Class. Def. 
In, - - - expresses a relation of " created" and " beginning," Prep., 12. 

The, - - limits " beginning," Adj., 9. 

Beginning, object of relation expressed by "in," - - - - Noun, 7. 

God, - - agent of the action expressed by " created," - - Noun, 7. 

Created, - expresses the action performed by " God," - - Verb, 10. 

The, - - limits " heaven," Adj., 9. 

Heaven, - object of action expressed by " created," - - - Noun. 7. 

And, - - connects " heaven" and " earth," ------ Conj. 13. 

The, - - limits " earth," Adj., 9. 

Earth, - object of action expressed by " created," - - - Noun, 7. 

2. He educated his daughter and his son, at great expense. 

3. Students require of the teacher, much instruction and some 
patience. 

4. We, at all times, seek our honor and our happiness. 

5. God, in the creation, has displayed his wisdom and his 
power. 

6. Men gather the tares and the wheat, with equal care. 

7. John loves his study and his play, with equal attachment. 



k Let the pupil repeat these definitions. 



SENTENCES CLASSIFICATION ANALYSIS. 25 

" The Lord uplifts his awful hand 
And chains you to the shore" 

(15.) 




H A N D \ 

H ISJ ^A W F U L J 

Y O U 3 



SHORE. ") 

Compound sentence — transitive. 

ANALYSIS. 

'Lord — Subject of " uplifts 1 ' and " chains." 
Uplifts ^ 
Principal j [And] > Predicates of " Lord." 
parts. | Chains ) 

Hand— Object of " uplifts." 
You — Object of " chains." 
"The— Adjunct of " Lord." 

His ) 

Adjuncts. < / , | j Adjuncts of " hand." 

L To the shore — Adjunct of " chains." 

Other examples ) in which the Principal Parts are the same. 
Let the pupil place in diagrams, the following sentences : 
" He heard the king's command^ 
And saw that writing's truth,'' 1 
" For misery stole me at my birth, 
And cast me helpless on the wild." 
u Then weave the chaplet of flowers and strew the beauties 
»f nature about the grave." 

u They fulfilled the great law of labor in the letter, but broke 
t in the spirit." 

" That the page unfolds 
And spreads us to the gaze of God and men." 
" Now twilight lets her curtain down. 

And pins it with a star." 
u He marks, and in heaven's register enrolls, 
The rise and progress of each option there." 
Remark. — The last example differs from the others. Let the pupil tell 
therein. 



Principal 
parts. 



26 PART. I. SENTENCES CLASSIFICATION. 

Temperance and frugality promote healthy and secure 

happiness. 

(16,) 

(TEMPERANCE^ PROMOTE jf HEALTH j 

(k) (U) 

f FRUGALITY J SECURE jHAPPINESsT) 

A compound sentence — transitive. 

ANALYSIS. 

Temperance ^ 

[and] > Subjects of " promote" and K secure." 
Frugality S 
l m i p re( jj ca ^ es f u temperance" and v fru- 

q L J ( gality." 
secure ) & J 

Health — Object of " promote." 

_ Happiness — Object of u secure." 

Note. — If I say — " Temperance promotes health and frugality secures hap- 
piness" I make two distinct sentences — each " simple." But the " and'' 
may be taken from between " temperance" and " frugality," and placed 
between " health" and " happiness," and it remains a compound sen- 
tence. It will then read thus — " Temperance promotes, and frugality 
secures, health and happiness ;" — and is thus construed: 

Temperance — Subject of " promotes." 
Promotes — Predicate of '• temperance." 
Frugality — Subject of " secures." 
Secures — Predicate of " frugality." 
Health ~) 

[and] > Objects of u secures" and " promotes." 

Happiness ) 

" There youth and beauty tread the choral ring, 
And shout their raptures to the cloudless skies." 

" Prayer only, and the penitential tear, 
Can call her smiling down and fix her here." — Cowper. 

Note to the Teacher. — The Author suggests that the 
Teacher give to each Pupil, a sentence to be placed in Diagram, 
and presented for inspection and criticism, at a subsequent re- 
citation. It is believed that this practice, repeated every day, 
will be an agreeable and profitable exercise. 



SENTENCES CLASSIFICATION ANALYSIS. 27 

c^xz= y "N « Wisdom and virtue elevate and ennoble 
a c±±Dat±> ' man." 

GwJ?~""^V V' The toils and cares of life torment the 
b ^^k-Aztti/ restless mind."* 

( firf ) " -P ass i° n degrades and brutalizes man."f 

* A compound sentence — transitive ; having two subjects, one pre- 
dicate, and one object. 



Principal 



ANALYSIS. 

T Toils ) 

[and] > Subjects of " torment." 
-v Cares ) 

pans. Torment— Predicate of u toils [and] cares." 
Mind— Object of " torment." 

0f ,® I Adjuncts of " toils and cares." 

Adjuncts. J T / e K 

-p 1 ^ 6 i Adjuncts of " mind." 
Kestless ) J 

t A compound sentence — transitive — having one subject, two 
predicates, and one object. 

ANALYSIS. 

Passion — Subject of " degrades and brutalizes." 
Degrades ) 

[and] > Predicates of " Passion." 
Brutalizes ) 
Man — Object of u degrades and brutalizes." 



Principal 
parts. 



Miscellaneous Examples, having their Principal Parts adapted to 
Diagram a, b, or c, Fig. 17. 
" Pride and envy accompany and strengthen each other." 
" Illuminated Reason and regulated Liberty shall once more 
exhibit man in the image of his Maker." 

u Here Art and Commerce, with auspicious reign, 
Once breathed sweet influence on the happy plain." 
" For Hopes too long delayed, 
And Feelings blasted or betrayed, 
Its fabled Bliss destroy." 
" Patience and perseverance will surmount or remove the 
most formidable difficulties." 



28 PART I. SENTENCES CLASSIFI CATION. 

" Then Strife and Faction rule the day, 
And Pride and Avarice throng the way ; 
Loose Revelry and Riot bold, 
In freighted streets their orgies hold." 

" The hunter's trace and the dark encampments started the 
wild beasts from their lairs." 
" Thy praise the widow's sighs, and orphan's tears embalm." 
" Their names, their years, spelled by the unlettered muse. 
The place of fame and elegy supply." — Grey. 

" Hence, every state, to one loved blessing prone, 
Conforms and models life to that alone." 
" Hope, like a cordial, innocent though strong, 
Man's heart at once inspirits and serenes." — Young. 
u For which we shunned and hated thee before." 
" By thus acting, we cherish and improve both." 
" When mighty Alfred's piercing soul 
Pervades and regulates the whole." 
" Knowledge reaches, or may reach, every home." 
" Whose potent arm perpetuates existence or destroys." 
Hill and valley echo back their songs and alleluias. 
a He tossed not high his ready cap in air, 
Nor lifted up his voice in servile shouts, 
At sight of that great ruffian." 
(18.) ^ 

Unnumbered systems, suns, and ivorlds, 
unite to worship thee. 

A compound sentence — intransitive ; containing three subjects 
and one predicate. 




Principal 
parts. 



ANALYSIS. 

Systems," 

Subjects of" unite." 



Suns, 
[and] 
Worlds, 

_ Unite — Predicate of " systems, suns, and worlds." 
C Unnumbered — Adjunct of " systems, suns, and 
Adjuncts. < worlds." 

(To worship thee — Adjunct of "unite." 
u The lame, the blind, and the aged repose in hospitals." 



SENTENCES — CLASSIFICATION ANALYSIS. 29 

" They kneeled before they fought." 

(19.) 



(* THEY VTnEeTe^) 



(^BEFORlT) 



( ^ T HEY ^FOUGHT .^) 
Complex sentence. — Def. 33. 



Adjunct \ Th r Ad j unct f « kneeled." 

sentence. * J l J 



ANALYSIS. 

Pri?icipal < They — Subject of " kneeled." 
sentence. ( Kneeled — Predicate of " they. 5 

VAdji 
v Fought S 
Before — Introduces a qualifying sentence. 
They— Subject of " fought." 
Fought— Predicate of u they." 
Let each pupil make a sentence for the above diagram. 
(20.) 

pz^zrr He hears the thunder ere the tempest 



lowers. 77 



A complex sentence. — Def. 33. 

ANALYSTS. 

p . . 7 ( He — Subject of " hears." 

2 I Hears — Predicate ^ " he." 
* a ^ Thunder — Object of " hears." 

Ad'uncts \ The — Ad J unct of " thunder." 

J ' \ Ere the tempest lowers — Adjunct of " hears." 
f Ere— Introduces a qualifying sentence. 
Auxiliary J Tempest — Subject of " lowers." 
sentence. | Lowers — Predicate of " tempest." 
I^The — Adjunct of " tempest." 

Examples applicable to Diagram (19) or (20), with the addition 

of Adjuncts. 
While they triumph, they expire. 
While we tarried, they slept. If we fail, you perish. 



30 PART I. SENTENCES— ANALYSIS. 

" And when its yellow lustre smiled. 
O'er mountains yet untrod, 
Each mother held aloft her child, 
To bless the bow of God." 

" We range us in line 
As the voice of the trumpet is calling." 
" The virtue still adorns our age, 

Though the chief actor died upon the stage." 
u He spread an open countenance, where smiles 

The fair effulgence of an open heart." 
" It will, through latest time, enrich your race, 
When grossest wealth shall moulder into dust." 
" Heaves my heart with strong emotion, 

While I go far hence to dwell." — Smith. 
" Pray I cannot, though inclination 
Be as sharp as 'twill." 

" Too low they build : who build beneath the stars" 

Young. 

(21.) 



THEY ^^ BUILD^ 




V L O W J 




\_ TOO y 


WHO ^XT B U I L D 




EEN-1 

\eath/- STARS. ^) 

^_ THE _J 



A complex sentence — both simple and intransitive, 

ANALYSIS. 

Principal ( They — Subject of " build." 
parts. \ Build — Predicate of " they." 
C Low — Adjunct of " build." 

Adjuncts. < Too — Adjunct of " low." 

( Who build beneath the stars — Adjunct of " they." 
[Principal ( Who — Subject of " build." 

Auxiliary \ parts. \ Build — Predicate of " who." 

sentence. 1 j r , l Beneath stars — Adjunct of " build." 
^ajuncts. j The _ Adjunct of u stars a 



SENTENCES CLASSIFICATION ANALYSTS. 3 1 

(22.) 



( THEY YUNDERTAKE^" CAUS E ^ 

j \r H E Jl~N B LEST j 

(that T fight ") : _ v ^ — ~ --v-k 

I I ( MANKIND X CA N HAVE J [XJ 

" jBm£ ^6y that fight for freedom, undertake 
The noblest cause mankind can have at stake. 7 '' 

A complex sentence. 

ANALYSIS. 

p # . . j C They — Subject of " undertake." 
v\ < Undertake — Predicate of c; they." 
' Cause — Object of " undertake." 
" That fight for freedom — Adjunct of " they." 

Adjuncts. J l l H hst ) A fc C s tS ».° f 

L[that] mankind can have at stake ) 

Construction. 

But, introduces an additional sentence, ------- Conj. 

They, agent of action expressed by " undertake," - - - Pron. 

That, agent of action expressed by " fight," Pron. 

Fight, expresses the action performed by " that," - - - - Verb. 

For, expresses a relation of "fight" and "freedom," - - Prep. 

Freedom, object of relation expressed by " for," Noun. 

Undertake, expresses the action of " they," ------- Verb. 

The, limits " cause," --- _._-_ Adj. 

Noblest, qualifies " cause," Adj. 

Cause, object of the action expressed by " undertake," - - Noun. 

X, [that], object of " can have" — referring to " cause," - - - Pron. 

Mankind, agent of action expressed by " can have," - - - - Noun. 

Can have, expresses an action of " mankind," Verb. 

At, expresses a relation of " can have " and " stake," - Prep. 

Stake, object of relation expressed by " at," ------ Noun. 

§5^* Let each pupil make a sentence for the above diagram. 

And students who love to study, merit the highest honors 
which teachers can give them. 

Variations of Adjuncts. 

u Serious politeness is the best shield [ ] a young lady 
can have, and it is a shield [ ] you may need in a tete-a-tete 
with a youthful instructor. This sort of defence protects you, 
without offending others." — Young Ladies 1 Friend. 



32 



PART I. SENTENCES CLASSIFICATION. 



" Our proper bliss depends on what [that which] we 

blame" 

(23.) 

( BLIS S~Xd E p"e N D S ) 

y ourJI proper ; Ion ) " 



7 toi] 



Q W E ^(BLAME, 



. . AT 
WH . . . 



A Complex sentence — the Auxiliary qualifies a phrase. 



ANALYSIS. 



Bliss — Subject of " depends." 
Depends — Predicate of " bliss.'" 

-o < Adjuncts of "bliss." 

Proper ( J 

On what we blame — Adjunct of " depends." 

On — Expresses a relation of " depends" and " what." 

ttti , $ [That] — Object of relation expressed by " on." 

I [Which] — Object of action expressed by " blame." 

We — Subject of " blame." 

Blame — Predicate of " we." 

Let sentences be made for the above diagrams. 



"God never meant, that man should scale the heavens 
By strides of human wisdom. 7 * — Cowper. 

(2*.) 



GOD 



MEANT 



^\ 



¥ 




c 



MAN 



30 



m 



SHOULD SCALE 



x 



STRIDES 



[EAVEN S ) 

V T H E J 



[ ° F j WISDOM. "]) 

V H U M A n ] 

A complex sentence — the Auxiliary the logical object of the Principal. 
' Let the Analysis of this sentence be written on the black-board. 



SENTENCES CLASSIFICATION ANALYSIS. 33 

" Time slept on flowers and lent his glass to hope.' 1 

Sigourney. 

(25.) 

SLEPT } 

TIME (^O^/fLOWET ?) 

LENT X^° L A S S 3 



1™F 



parts. 



HOPE.) 
^1 mixed sentence. — Def. 30, Z>. 

ANALYSIS. 

"Time— Subject of " slept" and " lent." 

-PfLTICVDOjl v 

A s [and] > Predicates of " time." 
Lent ) 

Glass— Object of " lent." 
C On flowers — Adjunct of " slept." 
Adjuncts. < His — Adjunct of ' : glass." 

( To hope — Adjunct of " lent." 

Let the pupil apply the following sentences to the same diagram. 

2. We sigh for change, and spend our lives for nought. 

3. We shall pass from earth, and yield our homes to others. 

4. William goes to school, and pursues his studies with dili- 
gence. 

5. James stays at home, and spends his time at play. 

6. Fruits ripen in autumn, and yield us rich repasts. 

7. Eagles build their nests on high, and watch for prey. 

8. Larks sing at dawn, and afford us much delight. 

Vary the Adjuncts for the following. 
"For spring shall return and a lover bestow." — Beattie. 
u But the black blast blows hard, 
And puffs them wide of hope." 
u Wreaths of smoke ascend through the trees, and betray the 
half hidden cottage." 

u Its little joys go out, one by one, 

And leave poor man, at length, in perfect night." 
" In silence majestic they twinkle on high, 

And draw admiration from every eye." 
u The waves mount up and wash the face of heaven." 



34 PART I. SENTENCES CLASSIFICATION. 

PW "For the angel of death spread his icings 

on the blast , 
^tES^jba—, ^ind breathed in the face of the foe 
c - x -^ as he passed" 

A mixed sentence — complex.— Dei. 30, b. and 33. 



ANALYSIS. 



'Angel — Subject of " spread and " breathed." 

Spread } 
[and] > Predicates of " angel." 

Breathed ) 
w Wings — Object of " spread." 

r Of death j Adjuncts of "angel." 
His — Adjunct of " wings." 
On the blast — Adjunct of " spread." 
In the face of the foe > Ad f „ breathed „ 

^As he passed ) J 

a -j- i As — Introduces an auxiliary sentence. 
y < He — Subject of " passed." 
£ Passed — Predicate of " he." 



Principal 
parts. 



Adjuncts. < 



Let the principal parts of the same diagram be written on the 
black-board, and vary the adjuncts to the following sentences. 

" He plants his footsteps in the sea, 
And rides upon the storm." 

The ravished eye casts its glance around on every side, and 
is never satisfied with gazing. 

" That I might explore the records of remote ages, and be- 
come familiar with the learning and literature of other times." 

Taylor, 
" But now a wave, high rising o'er the deep, 
Lifts its dire crest — and, like a vengeful fiend, 
Comes as a mountain on." 
" He leaps enclosures, bounds into the world." — Young. 
" By that dread name, we wave the sword on high. 

And swear for her to live — with her to die." 
u The moon in the east, now her crescent displays, 
And adds to the grandeur of night." 



SENTENCES CLASSIFICATION ANALYSIS. 35 

" And the eyes of the sleepers waxed deadly and chill" 

(27.) 



DEAD LY^ 

WAXED CZMT 




CHILL.) 



Compound sentence — intransitive. 

ANALYSIS. 

Principal ( Eyes — Subject of •' waxed deadly [and] chill." 
parts. ( Waxed deadly [and] chill — Predicate of " eyes." 

Adjuncts. < ^n M i t ^ Adjuncts of "eyes." 

J I <Jt the sleepers ) 

Construction. 

And, introduces an additional sentence, Conj., 13. 

The, limits " eyes," Adj., 9. 

Eyes, agent of " waxed deadly [and] chill," Noun, 7. 

Of, expresses relation of " eyes " [and] " sleepers," - - Prep., 12. 

The, limits " sleepers," - - Adj., 9. 

Sleepers, object of relation expressed by " of," Noun, 7. 

Waxed, expresses (with "deadly [and] chill") what is af- 
firmed of " eyes," Verb, 10. 

Deadly, used in predication with waxed, Adj., 9. 

And, connects " deadly " [and] " chill," Conj. 13. 

Chill, used in predication with waxed, ------- Adj., 9. 

Additional Examples. 
" Age is dark and unlovely. "—Ossian. 
u Now, therefore, be not grieved nor angry with yourselves." 

" Bloodless are these limbs and cold." — Byron. 
" How finely diversified, and how multiplied into many thou- 
sand distinct exercises, is the attention of God." — Chalmers. 
" I am perplexed and confounded." 
" They became agitated and restless." 

" The wares of the merchant are spread abroad in the shops, 
or stored in the high-piled warehouses." 

u Rude am I in speech, and little blest 

With the set phrase of peace." 
" What bark is plunging 'mid the billowy strife, 
And dashing madly on to fearful doom." 



36 PART I. SENTENCES CLASISFICATION. 

Diagrams of the Principal Farts of Simple, Compound, and 
Complex Sentences. 

SIMPLE SENTENCES. 

( subject Ypredicate^ lntransitive-\i^mg one Subject, one 
v 'V / Predicate. 

/- „ TT nrwm -v" \/ n Transitive — having one 

C subject X PREDiCATi) C oBJECT ) Subject, one Predkate, 

one Object. 
COMPOUND SENTENCES. 



C S: r r—zzz^~ "^ Intransitive — two Subjects, one Predicate. 

™\ tZZZOZZzz^ Intransitive — one Subject, two Predicates. 



E CZ_J£ 



Z) Transitive — one Subject, two Predicates, 
ZD two Objects. 



p ( r — ID. — -„ Z K A Transitive— two Subjects, two Predicates, 

c ■ X k J one Object. 

G^= = ^ a y g j Transitive — two Subjects, two Predicates, 

C X- - X_____3 two Objects. 

jjC — ~ — Zy~~ "~\ -tr— ^ T'ansitive — two Subjects, one Predicate. 

C J K. / C J two Objects. 

j c n f y ^ Transitive — two Subjects, one Predicate, 

c .-> ^- -J one Object. 

J C~ ~~~ \ q T *) Transitive — one Subject, two Predicates, 

one Object. 
Transitive — one Subject, one Predicate, two 
Objects. 

MIXED SENTENCES. 



k ( ^ J— ^ — x "^ First Clause, Intransitive ; Second, Transitive, 
■***■ v j ^^-^ 



j ■ 

3 First Clause, Transitive ; Second, Intransitive. 

COMPLEX SENTENCES. 




~-^ The Auxiliary sentence Substantive Sub- 
_J ject of the Principal sentence. 

The Auxiliary sentence Substantive Ob- 
ject of the Principal sentence. 

"} Principal sentence, Simple, Intransitive. 



> Auxiliary sentence, Simple, Transitive, Ad- 
verbial. 




SENTENCES EXAMPLES. 37 

Principal sentence, Simple, Transitive. 
5 Auxiliary sentence, Simple, Transitive, Adjective. 



EXAMPLES OF COMPLEX SENTENCES. 

^p^ Rem. — Let the pupil write the Diagram for each sentence on the 
black- board and insert the words in the proper places. 

r „ , xn.__> Blessed are the poor in spirit, 
c_ . xz zS^> for theirs is the kingdom of heaven. 



s: 



Blessed are they that mourn, 

for they shall be comforted. 
^* . ■ ■ •> Blessed are the meek, 

for they shall inherit the earth. 



<=>==> 

^sS 




Blessed are they which do hunger and thirst 

after righteousness, for they shall be filled. 

Blessed are the pure in heart, 

for they shall see God. 

Blessed is the man that endureth temptation, 

for, when he is tried, 

he shall receive the crown of life, 
which the Lord hath promised 
to them that love him. 



OTHER EXAMPLES, IN WHICH THE AUXILIARY SENTENCE 
IS SUBSTANTIVE. 

" That I have taken this old marts daughter, is most true." 
" As they sat down, one said to his friend at his right, i We 
shall soon see who is who.'' " 

" We bustle up with unsuccessful speed, 
And in the saddest part, cry — i Droll indeed?" 
" Then Agrippa said unto Paul, Almost thou persuadest me to 
be a Christian." 

" A celebrated writer says — £ Take care of the minutes and the 
hours will take care of themselves.' " 

AUXILIARY SENTENCE ADJECTIVE. 

" There is something in their hearts which passes speech" 
" I heard the complaints of the laborers who had reaped down 



38 SENTENCES — EXAMPLES. 

his fields, and the cries of the poor whose covering he had taken 
away." 

"The difference in the happiness which is received or bestowed 
by the man who guards his temper, and that by the man who does 
not, is immense." 

AUXILIARY SENTENCE ADVERBIAL. 

And, as I passed along, I heard the complaints of the labor- 
ers. 

" The sweet remembrance of the just, 

Shall flourish when he sleeps in dust." 
" But when he caught the measure wild, 
The old man raised his head, and smiled." 
"And when [he was] listening to this, he would often clasp his 
hands in ecstasy of delight." 

" Their advancement in life and in education was such that 
each ought to have been a gentleman." 

" As they sat down, one said to his friend on his right, c We 
• shall soon see who is who.' " 

" If you would know the deeds of him who chews, 
Bntee, the house of God, and see the pews." 

Adams. 
PROMISCUOUS EXAMPLES. 

Virtue secures happiness. 

" Darkness is o'er the land — 
For lo ! a death-flag streams upon the breeze — 
The Hero hath departed !" 
" Nay, let us weep. Our grief hath need of tears — 

Tears should embalm the dead. 

######### 

Throned in a nation's love he sunk to sleep, 
And so awoke in heaven." — Mrs. Stevens. 
" The perfect world, by Adam trod, 

Was the first temple — built by God : 

His fiat laid the corner-stone, 

And heaved its pillars one by one. 
" He hung its starry roof on high — 

The broad, illimitable sky ; 

He spread its pavement green and bright, 

And curtained it with morning light." 



SENTENCES EXAMPLES. 39 

1. 0, I have loved, in youth's fair vernal morn, 

To spread imagination's wildest wiog, 
The sober certainties of life to scorn, 

And seek the visioned realms that poet's sing — 
Where Nature blushes in perennial spring, 

Where streams of earthly joy exhaustless rise, 
Where Youth and Beauty tread the choral ring, 

And shout their raptures to the cloudless skies, 
While every jovial hour on downy pinion flies. 

2. But, ah ! those fairy scenes at once are fled, 

Since stern Experience waved her iron wand, 
Broke the soft slumbers of my visioned head, 

And bade me here of perfect bliss despond. 
And oft have I the painful lesson conned ; 

When Disappointment mocked my wooing heart, 
Still of its own delusion weakly fond, 

And from forbidden pleasures loth to part, 
Though shrinking oft beneath Correction's deepest smart. 

3. And is there nought in mortal life, I cried, 

Can sooth the sorrows of the laboring breast % 
No kind recess, where baffled hope may hide, 

And weary Nature lull her woes to rest? 
grant me, pitying Heaven, this last request! — 

Since I must every loftier wish resign, 
Be my few days with peace and friendship blessed ; 

Nor will I at my humble lot repine, 
Though neither wealth, nor fame, nor luxury be mine. 

4. give me yet, in some recluse abode, 

Encircled with a faithful few, to dwell, 
Where power cannot oppress, nor care corrode, 

Nor venomed tongues the tale of slander tell I 
bear me to some solitary cell, 

Beyond the reach of every human eye ! 
And let me bid a long and last farewell 

To each alluring object 'neath the sky, 
And there in peace await my hour — in peace to die. 

5. " Ah vain desire ! n a still, small voice replied, 

u No place, no circumstance can Peace impart : — 
She scorns the mansion of unvanquished Pride, 
Sweet inmate of a pure and humble heart : — 



40 PART I. SENTENCES EXAMPLES. 

Take then thy station — act thy proper part ; — 
A Savior's mercy seek, — his will perform : 

His word has balm for sin's envenomed smart, 

His love, diffused, thy shuddering breast shall warm 

His power provide a shelter from the gathering storm." 

6. welcome hiding-place ! refuge meet 

For fainting pilgrims on this desert way ! 
kind Conductor of these wandering feet, 

Through snares and darkness, to the realms of day 
So did the Sun of righteousness display 

His healing beams ; each gloomy cloud dispel : 
While on the parting mist, in colors gay, 

Truth's cheering bow of precious promise fell, 
And Mercy's silver voice soft whispered — " All is well." 



THE SCIENCE OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 



PART II. 



Principle. The science of language embraces, 

1. The structure and form of words, or, 

ORTHOGRAPHY.* ' 

2. The classification and modification of words, or, 

ETYMOLOGY. 

3. The relation and mutual dependence of words, 
or, 

SYNTAX. 

4. The arrangement and utterance of words, or, 

PROSODY. 



CLASSIFICATION AND MODIFICATION OF 
WORDS. 

Prill. Words are distinguished by their 
Forms and Uses. 

I. THE FORMS OF WORDS. 

Prin. By their forms, words are distinguished as 

Radical or Derivative, | Simple or Compound. 
Def. 34. A word that does not derive its original from ano- 
ther word in the language, is a R.adical Word. 
Examples — Man — joy — time — act — form. 

* For an epitome of Orthography, see Appendix, Note A. 



42 PART II. ETYMOLOGY. 

Def. 35. A word formed from a Radical, by prefixing or add- 
ing one or more letters to it, is a Derivative Word, 
Examples — Manly — enjoy — joyous — enact — active — conform. 

Def. 36. A word that may be used separately from another 
word, is a Simple Word. 

Examples — Man — money — board — stand — maker — ink. 
Def. 37. A word made of two or more words combined, is a 
Compound Word. 
Examples — Money-maker — ink-stand — black-board. 
Prin. Particles used in forming Derivative Words, are 

Prefixes and Suffixes. 
Def. 38. One or more letters placed before a word, is a 
Prefix. 

Examples — inform — conform — amend — bedew — unbind. 
Def. 39. One*or more letters added to a word, is a Suffix. 
Examples — Formi?ig — mended — dewy — active — joyous — manty. 
Prin. Prefixes and Suffixes are Simple or Compound. 

Examples of Simple. 

Prefixes. Suffixes. 

extend — define — conform. — I brutoi — feeling — acted — 
amend — instruct — coZlect. | manly — harmom>e — wilful. 

Compound. 

coextend — unconform — I .brutality — feelingly — 
preinstmct — ra;oZlect. | manfully — harmoni^m^-. 

Prefixes and Suffixes, 
affection — commotion — confutation — collective — 
information — counteracted — unwilling — defamation — 
preconcerted — unconformable — transubsXantiation. 

Prin. The Radicals of Derivative Words are Separable or 
Inseparable. 

Def. 40. A Separable Radical constitutes a perfect word 
without the aid of Prefixes or Suffixes. 

Examples — Man — form — feel — brute — will — joy. 

Def. 41. An Inseparable Radical is not used as a word in 
the language, without the aid of its prefix or suffix. 



Examples — - 


pose 


feet 


fate 


led 




compose 


affect 


refute 


collect 




composition 


affected 


refutation 


collection 



Note. — For Derivation of Words and a list of Prefixes and Suffixes, see 
Appendix, Note B. 



NOUNS CLASSES. 43 

IT. THE USES OF WORDS. 

Prin. By their uses words are distinguished as, 



Nouns, 
Pronouns, 
Adjectives, 
Verbs, 



Adverbs, 
Prepositions, 
Conjunctions, 
Exclamations, and 



Words of Euphony, 

NOUNS. 

Def« 42* A Noun is a word used as the name 
of a being*, place, or thing*. 

Obs. Nouns are names of — 

1. material things — as, man — book — apple; or, 

2. of ideas or things not material — as, mind — hope — desire 
— passion. 

CLASSIFICATION OF NOUNS. 

Remark. — Some nouns are appropriated to individual persons or 
places, or to things personified; others are general in their application, 
being used to designate classes or sorts. Hence, 

PriM. Nouns are distinguished as 
Proper and Common. 
Def« 43. A name, appropriated to an individual 
person or place, or to a thing personified, is a 
Proper Noun. 
Examples — William — Boston — Hudson — Oregon. 

Def» 44« A name used to designate one or 
more of a class or sort of beings or things, is a 
Common Noun. 

Examples — Man— book — American — conscience — feeling. 

Obs. 1. — A Common Noun is a name by which the individu- 
ality of a being or thing is designated. But, in addition to 
this office, some nouns are the names of qualities. 

Def. 44, a. — Such are properly called Abstract Nouns. 

Examples- — Goodness — excellence — rashness — moderation. 



44 PART II. ETYMOLOGY NOUNS. 

Obs. 2. — Some nouns include many individuals in one term. 
Def. 44, b. — Such are called Collective Nouns, 

Examples — Committee — army — company — fraternity. 

Obs. 3. — Some nouns are derived from verbs, and constitute 
merely the names of acts. 

Def. 44, c. — Such are called Verbal Nouns. 

Examples — [In the] beginning — [" the] triumphing [of the wicked."] 
Rem. — The classification of nouns as Common and Proper, is one ra- 
ther of cariosity than of practical utility in the Science of Language. 

MODIFICATION OF NOUNS. 

Rem. — Some nouns and pronouns, by their form, by their position in a 
sentence, or by their obvious uses, indicate — 

1. The sex — as male or female, or neither. 

2. The speaker, the being addressed, or the being or thing spoken of. 

3. The number of beings or things — as one or more. 

4. The condition, with regard to other words in the sentence — as, 

(1.) The Subject of a sentence. 

(2.) The Object of a sentence or phrase. 

(3.) Independent in construction. Hence, 

Prm. Nouns are modified by Gender, Person, 
Number, and Case. 

GENDER. 

Def* 45» Names of males are of the 
Masculine Gender. 

Examples — Man — lion — ox — king — brother — preceptor. 

Def. 46. Names of females are of the 
Feminine Gender. 

Examples — Woman — lioness — cow — queen — sister — precep- 
tress. 

Def. 47. Names of things without sex are said 
to be of the Neuter Gender. 

Obs. 1. — Strict propriety will allow the names of animals 
only to he modified by gender. 

Obs. 2. — Young animals and infants are not always distin- 
guished by gender : as, " Mary's kitten is very playful — it is 
quite a pet with the whole family." 

u Calm as an infant as it sweetly sleeps." 



NOUNS MODIFICATION. 



45 



Obs. 3. — Things personified are often represented by pro- 
nouns of the masculine or feminine gender. 
Examples — " Then Fancy Iter magical pinions spread wide." 
" Time slept on flowers, and lent his glass to Hope." 

" For the Angel of Death spread his wings on the blast, 
And breathed in the face of the foe as he pass'd." 

Obs. 4. — Many nouns which denote the office or condition of 
persons, and some others, are not distinguished by gender. 

Examples — Parent — cousin — friend — neighbor. 

Obs. 5. — Whenever words are used which include both males 
and females, without having a direct reference to the sex, the 
word appropriated to males, is commonly employed. 

Examples — " The proper study of mankind is man" 

" There is no flesh in man's obdurate heart — 
It does not feel for man." 

But to this rule there are exceptions- — as, geese — ducks. 

Prill, The gender of nouns is determined 
1 . By the termination ; as, 



Masc. Fern. 

Actor, Actress. 

Administrator, Administratrix. 



Author, 

Governor, 

Heir, 

Host, 

Hero, 

Jew, 

Lion, 



Authoress. 

Gpverness. 

Heiress. 

Hostess. 

Heroine. 

Jewess. 

Lioness. 



Masc. 
Patron, 
Prince, 
Protector, 
Shepherd, 
Songster, 
Tiger, 
Tutor, 
Tailor, 
Widower, 



Fern. 
Patroness. 
Princess. 
Protectress. 
Shepherdess. 
Songstress. 
Tigress. 
Tutoress. 
Tailoress 
Widow. 



2. By different words ; as, 



Masc. Fern, 
Bachelor, Maid. 



Beau, 

Boy, 

Brother, 

Drake, 

Father, 

Friar, 



Belle. 

Girl. 

Sister. 

Duck. 

Mother. 

Nun. 



Masc. 
Husband, 
King, 
Lad, 
Lord, 
Man, 
Master, 
Nephew, 



Fern. 
Wife. 
Queen. 

Lass. 

Lady. 

Woman. 

Mistress. 
Niece. 



46 PART II. ETYMOLOGY NOUNS. 

3. By prefixing 1 or affixing* other words. 

Masc. Fern. 

Man-servant, Maid-servant. 

He-goat, She-goat. 

Cock-sparrow, Hen-sparrow. 

Landlord, Landlady. 

Gentleman, Gentlewoman. 

Note. — In the English language, less importance, is attached to the 
gender of nouns than in the Latin, Greek, and other languages — the rela- 
tion of words in sentences depending more upon position and less upon 
the terminations. Hence, in parsing Nouns and Pronouns, the gender 
need not be mentioned, unless they are obviously masculine or feminine. 

PERSON. 

Rem* — All nouns are the names of 

1. The persons speaking. 

2. The persons or things addressed. Or, 

3. The persons or things spoken of. Hence, 

Prin« Nouns and pronouns are of the 
First Person, Second Person, or Third Person. 
Deft 48. The name of the person speaking* is 
of the First Person. 

Examples — " I, John, saw these things." c * We Athenians 
are in fault." 

Defa 49# The name of a person or thing* ad- 
dressed is of the Second Person. 

EXAMPLES. 

" Father, thy hand 
Hath reared these venerable columns ; thou 
Didst weave this verdant roof." 

Deft 50. The name of the person or thing* spo- 
ken of is of the Third Person. 

Examples — " The hero hath departed." " Honor guides his 
footsteps." 

NUMBER. 

Rem. — Nouns by their form denote individuality or plurality. Hence, 

Prllli Nouns are distinguished as 
Singular and Plural. 



NOUNS MODIFICATION. 47 



Def» 51# Nouns denoting' but one are of the 
Singular Number. 

Examples — Man — boy — pen — book — mouse — ox. 

Def. 52. Nouns denoting* more than one are of 
the Plural Number. 

Examples — Men — boys — pens — books — mice — oxen. 
Obs. — The Number of a noun is usually determined by the 
form. 

1. The Plural of most nouns differs from the Singular by 
haying an additional s. 

EXAMPLES. 

Singular. — Act, egg, book, mastiff, pen, chair. 
Plural. — Acts, eggs, books, mastiffs, pens, chairs. 

2. But a noun whose Singular form ends in s, ss, sA, z, ch 
(soft), and some nouns in and y, form the Plural by the addi- 
tion of es. 

EXAMPLES. 

Singular. — Gas, lynx, church, lash, glass, hero. 
Plural. — Gases, tynxes, churches, lashes, glasses, heroes. 

3. Y final, after a consonant, is changed into ie (the original 
orthography), and $ is added. 

EXAMPLES. 

Singular. — Lady, folly, quality. 
Old Form. — Ladie, follie, qualitie. 
Plural. — Ladies, follies, qualities. 

4. Many nouns ending mforfe. change/ into ves. 

EXAMPLES. 

Singular. — Life, wife, leaf, sheaf, half. 
Plural. — Lives, wives, leaves, sheaves, halves. 

To this rule there are exceptions. 

5. Irregular Plurals. 

EXAMPLES. 

Singular. — Man, child, foot, ox, mouse. 
Plural. — Men, children, feet, oxen, mice. 

6. In a compound word, the principal word is varied to form 
the Plural. 

EXAMPLES. 

Singular. — Father-in-law, aid-de-camp, fellow-servant. 
Plural. — Fathers-in-law, aids-de-camp, fellow-servants. 



48 PART II.— ETYMOLOGY NOUNS. 

7. Some nouns have no Plurals. 
Examples — Wheat — silver — gold — iron — gratitude. 

8. Some nouns have no Singular. 

Examples — Tongs — embers — vespers — literati— -scissors. 

9. Some nouns have the same form in both numbers. 

EXAMPLES. 

Singular.— ^Apparatus, news, wages, sheep, vermin. 
Plural. — -Apparatus, news, wages, sheep, vermin. 

10. Some nouns, having a Singular form, are used in a Plu- 
ral sense. 

Examples — Horse — foot — cavalry — cannon — sail. One thousand horse 
and two thousand/^ — five hundred cavalry — fifty cannon — twenty sail of 
the line— and, for supplies, five hundred head of cattle. 

11. Some nouns, having no Plural form to indicate Number, 
receive a Plural termination to indicate different species. 

Examples — Wines — " Most wines contain over twenty per cent, of al- 
cohol." Tea — " The teas of the Nankin Company are alt good." 

12. Many Latin, Greek, and Hebrew nouns used in English 
composition, retain their original Plurals. Commonly the ter- 
minations urn, us, and on, of the Singular, are changed into a, 
for the Plural ; x into ces. and is into es. 

examples. 
Singular. — Datum, genus, criterion, index, axis. 
Plural. — Data, genera, criteria, indices, axes. 

Note. — For other examples of Number, see Appendix, Note C. 

Exercises in Gender, Person, and Number. 

ggr Let the class give, 1st, the Gender — 2d, the Person — 3d, the Num- 
ber of each of the following names — always giving a reason for the mod- 
ification, by repeating the definitions. 

William, Boy, Town, Army, 

Ganges, Girl, County, Data, 

Andes, Aunt, Troy, Index, 

Cuba, Cousin, City, Question. 

£3^ Let sentences be made in which the following words shall be in 
the Second Person. 

Father, Stars, Thou, Heralds, 

Mother, Hills, You, Messengers, 

Sun, Rivers, Ye, Walls, 

Earth, Woods, Men, Floods. 

§3^* Let other sentences be made having the same words in the Third 
Person. 



NOUNS MODIFICATION. 49 

Let the following Singular Nouns be changed to their Plurals 
and placed in sentences — always giving the Rule for the change of 
number. 

Boy, Motto, Fox, Ox, Son-in-law, 

Father, Hero, Staff, Pea, Spoon-full, 

Man, Knife, Goose, Basis, Cousin-german, 

Child, Hoof, Mouse, Stratum, Knight-errant. 

JTg^ Let the Gender and Number of the following nouns be changed 
and placed in sentences. 

Man, Bachelor, Brother, Poetess, 

Boys, Lioness, Sons, Prince, 

Uncles, Geese, Sister, Tutor, 

Cousin, Cow, Maid, Widower. 

§3?" Let the class turn to page 28, and point out all the nouns, and 
mention their classes, and their modifications of Gender, Person, and 
Number. 

CASE. 

Rem* — All nouns and pronouns are used- 

1. As the Subject of a sentence. 

2. As a Definitive of some other noun. 

3. As the Object of an action or relation, or 

4. Independent of other words in the sentence. 

These different conditions of nouns suggest their modifications in re- 
gard to case ; for case in grammar means condition. Hence, 

Prin. Nouns are distinguished as being- in the 



Nominative Case, 
Possessive Case, 



Objective Case, 
Independent Case. 



Def. 53# A Noun or Pronoun which is the 
Subject of a sentence, is in the Nominative Case. 

Examples — Animals run — John saws wood — Resources are 
developed. u The king of shadows loves a shining mark." 

Deft 54o A Noun or Pronoun varied in its or- 
thography, so as to indicate a relation of possession, 
is in the Possessive Case. 

Obs. 1. — The Possessive is formed by adding an apostrophe 
and s to the Nominative. 

EXAMPLES. 

Nom. — Man, . boy, world, George. 
Pos. — Man's, boy's, world's, George's. 



50 PART II.— ETYMOLOGY— NOUNS. 

Obs. 2. — Most plural nouns ending in s, add the apostrophe 
only. 

EXAMPLES, 

Nom. — Horses, eagles, foxes, 
Pos. — Horses'. eagles'. foxes'. 

Obs. 3. — Many nouns ending in the singular in s, or ce, add 
the apostrophe only. 

EXAMPLES. 

Nom. — Mechanics, conscience, 

Pes. — Mechanics'. conscience'. 

New York Mechanics' Association. 
He suffered for conscience' sake. 

Note. — A noun or pronoun in the Possessive case is used adjectively. 
[For illustration, see Appendix, Note E.J 

Obs. The Possessive case does not always indicate " posses- 
sion or ownership." Children's shoes. Here the word " chil- 
dren's" does not imply ownership. It simply specifies " shoes" 
as to size. — Small shoes. Here " small" specifies " shoes" in a 
similar manner — u small" and " children's," performing similar 
offices, are similar in their etymology ; " small" is an adjec- 
tive — " children's" is an Adjective. 

Note. — Nouns and Pronouns become Adjectives whenever 
their principal office is to specify or describe other names : and 
they may have the form of the Nominative, Possessive, or Ob- 
jective case. 

EXAMPLES. 

Steel pens. — Silver steel. — A he goat. — Our national resources. — New 
England customs. — Wood engravings. — Upland cotton. — A she goat. — 
Their enemies. — Paris fashions. 

" O, m,y offence is rank — it smells to heaven ; 
It hath the primal, eldest curse upon it, 
A brother's murder." 

Deft £>5. A noun or pronoun which is the Ob- 
ject of a sentence or a phrase, is in the 
Objective Case. 

Examples — John saws wood — Science promotes happiness. 

64 The king of shadows loves a shining mark?'' 
? In the beginning God created the heaven and the earth. 11 
" Scaling yonder peak, I saw an eagle wheeling near its brow. 11 



NOUNS— MODIFICATION. 5 1 

Def. 56. A noun or pronoun not dependent on 
any other word in construction, is in the 

Independent Case. 

Obs. — The Independent case includes — 

1. The names of persons addressed. 

Examples — O Liberty ! — " Friends, Romans, countrymen !" 

2. Names used to specify or define other names, previously 
mentioned. 

Examples — Paul the Apostle wrote to Timothy. Here " Paul" is the 
subject of " wrote," hence in the Nominative case (See Def. 53). " Apos- 
tle" designates which " Paul" is intended ; hence, in the Independent case. 

3. Nouns used to introduce independent phrases. 
Examples — The hour having arrived, we commenced the exercises. 

4. Nouns and pronouns used in predication with verbs. 
Examples — " God is love" — " It is J" — " The wages of sin is death." 

5. Nouns and pronouns used for euphony, titles of books, 
cards, signs, &c. 

EXAMPLES. 

"The moon herself is lost in heaven." 
" Webster's Dictionary' '— " Munson and Bradley" 

Obs. — In the English language, nouns are not varied in form 
to distinguish the cases (except for the Possessive). Com- 
monly, the case of a noun is determined by its position in a 
sentence — the Subject (nominative) taking the first place, the 
Object (objective) the last. 

EXAMPLES. 

Subject. Object. 

John assists William. 

William assists John. 

But this natural order of position is often reversed by the 
poets and public speakers. 

EXAMPLES. 

" Now fades the glimmering landscape on the sight, 
And all the air a solemn stillness holds." 

" Him, from my childhood, J have known." 

" Thee we adore." 



52 PART II. ETYMOLOGY NOUNS. 



Exercises. 



Let the class turn 10 pages 25 and 28, and point out the nouns- 
naming the cases of each, and the reason for each modification, after the 
following 

MODEL. 
I. 
" The Lord uplifts his awful hand. 
And chains you to the shore" 

Lord, .is a name ; hence a Noun — for " the name of a being, place, or 

thing, is a Noun." 
" Name, in this instance appropriated to an individual Being ; hence 

Proper — for " a name appropriated to an individual person," is a 

Proper Noun." 
" Name appropriated to males ; hence Masculine Gender — for 

"names of males are in the Masculine Gender." 
" Spoken of; hence Third Person — for " the name of the person or 

thing spoken of is of the Third Person." 
" Denotes but one ; hence Singular Number — for " nouns denoting 

but one are of the Singular Number." 
" Subject of the sentence ; hence Nominative Case — for " the sub- 
ject of a sentence is in the Nominative Case." 

Hand, .is a name ; hence a Noun — for " the name of a being, place, or 

thing, is a Noun." 
" Name of a class of things ; hence Common — for " a name used 

to designate a class of things is a Common Noun." 
" Not distinguished by sex ; hence Neuter Gender — for " names 

of things without sex are of the Neuter Gender." 
" Spoken of; hence Third Person — for " the name of the person or 

thing spoken of is of the Third Person." 
" Denotes but one ; hence Singular Number — for " nouns denoting 

but one are of the Singular Number." 
" Object of the sentence; hence Objective Case — for " the object 

of a sentence or phrase is in the Objective Case." 

Shore. . is a name ; hence a Noun — for " the name of a being, place, or 

thing, is a Noun." 
" Name of a class of things; hence Common — foi " a name used 

to designate a class of things is a Common Noun." 
" Not distinguished by sex ; hence Neuter Gender-— for " names 

of things without sex are of the Neuter Gender." 
" Spoken of; hence Third Person — for " the name of the person or 

thing spoken of, is of the Third Person." 

s * Denotes but one ; hence Singular Number — for " nouns denoting 

but one, arc of the Singular Number." 
" Object of a Phrase; hence Objective Case — for " the object of a 

sentence or phrase is in the Objective Case." 



PRONOUNS CLASSIFICATION. 53 



PRONOUNS. 

Rem. — To avoid an unpleasant repetition of the same word in a sen- 
tence, a class of words is introduced as substitutes for names. Hence, 

Deft 57. A word used instead of a Noun, is 
called a Pronoun. 

Obs. — As pronouns are of general application, the noun for 
which any given pronoun is substituted is commonly determined 
by the context — and, because it generally precedes the Pronoun, 
it is called its antecedent. 

CLASSIFICATION OF PRONOUNS. 

Rem. — Some Pronouns, by their forms, denote their modification of 
Gender, Person, Number, and Case. 

Others relate directly to the nouns for which they are used. 

Others, in addition to their ordinary office, are used in asking questions. 

Others describe the names for which they are substituted. Hence, 

Priih Pronouns are distinguished as 

Personal, Interrogative , and 



Relative, 



Adjective. 



PERSONAL PRONOUN. 

Deft 58. A Pronoun whose form determines its 
Person and Number, is a 

Personal Pronoun. 

List. — The simple Personal Pronouns are, I, thou or you, he. 
she, it. Their corresponding Compounds are, myself, thyself, 
yourself, himself, herself, itself. 

MODIFICATION. 

Rem. — Whenever one word is used in the place of another, it is pro- 
perly subjected to the same laws as the other : this is true of Pronouns. 
Hence, 

Prfn. Pronouns have the same modifications of 

Gender, Person, Number, and Case, as Nouns. 

Note. — Pronouns of the First and Second Persons are not 
varied to denote the sex. 



54 



PAPwT II. ETYMOLOGY PRONOUNS. 



Rem* — To denote these several Modifications, some Pronouns are 
varied in form. This variation of form is called 



DECLENSION OF PRONOUNS. 



Nominative. 
Singular . . I 
Plural . . we . 



FIRST PERSON. 

Possessive. Objective. 
. my # . . me . 
. our . . us . 

SECOND PERSON. 

Singular . You . . your . . you 
Plural . You . . your . . you 

second person. — Solemn Style. 
Singular . Thou . . thy . . thee 
Plural .Ye . . your . . you 

third person. — Masculine. 
Singular . He . . his . . him 
Plural . They . . their . . them ; 

third person. — Feminine. 
Singular . She . . her . . her 
Plural . They . . their . . them . 

third person. — Neuter. 
Singular . It ... its ... it . . 
Plural . They . . their . . them . 



Independent. 
I or met 
we 



. you 
. you 

. thou 

• ye 

. he or him 
. they 

. she 
. they 

. it 
. they 

Obs. 1. — Mine, thine, his, hers, ours, yours, and theirs, are 
used — in common with other definitives — substantively, i. e., as 
the representatives of nouns which it is their primary office to 
specify. They are then properly called Adjective Pronouns. 

Examples — '•' He is a friend of mine." " Thine is the kingdom." 
" Theirs had been the vigor of his youth." 



* My, thy, his, her, our, your, their, its, mine, and thine, when used to 
specify or otherwise describe nouns and pronouns (and they commonly 
are so used), are to be classed as Adjectives. They are placed here to 
denote their origin, and to accommodate those Teachers who prefer to call 
them Pronouns. [For an exposition of their true etymology, see Appendix, 
Note E. — See, also, Webster's Grammar.] 

t Pronouns in the Independent Case, commonly take the form of the 
Nominative, as " O happy they!" " Ah luckless he!" " It is //" 

But they sometimes take the form of the Objective, as " Him excepted." 
" I found it to be him" " It was not me that you saw." " Ah me .'" 



PRONOUNS CLASSIFICATION. 55 

Obs. 2. — The Pronoun it, is often used indefinitely. 

Examples — It snows — it rains — is it you 1 

RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

Def. 59. A Pronoun used to introduce a sen- 
tence which qualifies its antecedent, is a 
Relative Pronoun. 
List. — They are, who, which, that, and what 
Obs. 1. — Who is varied in Declension to indicate the Cases 
only. Which, that, what, are not declined. 

Norn. Pos. Obj. Indep. 

Who, Whose,* Whom, Who or Whom. 

Which, Which, Which. 

That, That, That. 

What, What, What. 

Obs. 2. — Who is applied to man, or to beings supposed to pos- 
sess intelligence. 

Examples — He who studies will excel those who do not. " He whom 
sea-severed realms obey." 

Obs. 3. — Which and what are applied to brute animals and 
things. 

Examples — The books which I lost. The pen which I use, is good. We 
value most what costs us most. 

Obs. 4. — That is applied to man or things. 

Examples — Them that honor me, I will honor. 

" "Where is the patience now, 
That you so oft have boasted to retain." — Lear. 

Obs. 5. — What, when used as a Relative, is always compound ; 
and is equivalent to that which, or the things which. 

The two elements of this word never belong to the same sen- 
tence ; one part introduces a sentence which qualifies the ante- 
cedent part of the same word. 

" Our proper bliss depends on what we blame." 

In this example, " What" is a compound Relative, equivalent 
to the two words, that which. That — the Antecedent part — is 
the object of "on:" u which"-- -the Relative part — is the object 

* Whose is always a definitive, attached to nouns, and may relate to 
persons or things—as " Whose 1 am, and whom I serve." " Whose body 
Nature is, and God the soul." 



56 PART II. ETYMOLOGY PRONOUNS. 

of "blame." The Auxiliary sentence, " we blame which/' is used 
to qualify " that." [See page 32, Diagram 23.] 

Obs. — The compounds, whoever, whosoever, whichever, whichso- 
ever, whatever, and whatsoever, are construed similarly to what. 

INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 

Def, 60. A Pronoun that is used to ask a ques- 
tion, is an Interrogative Pronoun. 

List. — They are, who, which, and what. 

Obs. — Who is applied to man; which and what, to man or 
things. 

Examples— " WJw will show us any goodl" " Which do you prefer 1" 
" Wliich of the officers was killed P " What will a man give in exchange 
for his soul'?" 

Obs. — Which and what are often used as Adjectives. 

Examples — Which book is yours 1 What evil hath he done 1 

ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. 

Bef. 61 • A definitive word used to supply the 
place of a Noun, which it defines, is an 
Adjective Pronoun. 

Example — " Some [ ] said one thing, and some, another" [ ] 
Obs. 1. — In this example, "some" defines people (understood), 
and is, therefore, used adjectively ; — it is substituted for the 
word a people," constituting the Subject of the sentence — hence 
it is used substantively. But the substantive office, being the 
principal office, the word is properly called a Pronoun. Its 
secondary office being adjective, it is properly called an Adjec- 
tive Pronoun. 

Obs. 2. — The following words are often thus used : 
All, Former, Neither, Such, 

Both, Last, None, That, 

Each, Latter, One, These, 

Either, Least, Other, Those, 

Few, Less, Several, This. 

Most specifying, and all qualifying Adjectives may be thus 
used. 

Examples — " The good alone are great" li The poor respect the rich." 
" One step from the sublime to the ridiculous." 



NOUN PRONOUNS CLASSIFICATION. 



57 



RECAPITULATION. 

" Radical 



Words are dis- . 
;inguished by their * 



Nouns are 



Pronouns are 



Forms 
and 

Uses. 

Proper 

or 

Common. 

Personal, 
Relative, 
Interrogative, 
Adjective. 



Separable, 
Inseparable. 

S Prefix, 
Root, 
Suffix. 
Simple, 

n i ( Basis, 

[.Compound, j Adju ; ct 

Noun, 

Pronoun, 

Adjective, 

Verb, 

Adverb, 

Preposition, ; 

Conjunction, 

Exclamation. 



Substantive, 

Abstract, 

Collective, 



Verbal. 



MODIFICATION OF NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 



Nouns and Pro- 
nouns are modified 

by 



Gender, 

Person, 
Number, 

Case. 



Masculine, 

Feminine, 

Neuter. 

First, 

Second, 

Third. 

Singular, 

Plural. 
f Nominative, 
J Possessive, 
] Objective, 
[_ Independent. 



2* 



58 PART II. ETYMOLOGY.— PRONOUNS. 

Exercises. 

U I see them on their winding wayP 
1 is used for the name of a person ; hence a Pronoun — for " a word 

used for a noun, is a Pronoun." 
" Its form determines its person and number ; hence Personal — 

for "a Pronoun whose form determines its person and number, 

is a Personal Pronoun." 
" Denotes the speaker ; hence First Person — for " the name of the 

person speaking is of the First Person." 
" Denotes but one ; hence Singular Number — for " nouns denoting 

but one are in the Singular Number." 
" Subject of the sentence ; hence Nominative Case — for " the sub- 

ject of a sentence is in the Nominative Case." 
Them, .is used for the name of persons; hence a Pronoun — for "a word 

used for a noun, is a Pronoun." 
" Its form determines its person and number ; hence Personal — for 

" a Pronoun whose form determines its person and number, is 

a Personal Pronoun." 

" Denotes persons spoken of; hence Third Person — for " the name 
of a person or thing spoken of, is of the Third Person." 

" Denotes more than one; hence Plural Number — for "nouns 
denoting more than one are of the Plural Number." 
Object of the sentence; hence Objective Case — for "the object of 
a sentence or a phrase, is in the Objective Case." 

|y In like manner, let the Pronouns in the following sentences be 
parsed. 

u That the page unfolds 
And spreads us to the gaze of God and men." 
" You wronged yourself,' 1 6i What we honor, you despise.* 
" Whatever is, is right." 
"She raised the napkin, o'er them spread. 
Which hid them from her view." 
" The rich and the poor meet together. 
The Lord is the maker of them all." 
" Train up a child in the way he should go ; 
And, when he is old, he will not depart from it." 
" He that oppresseth the poor to increase his riches, 
And he that giveth to the rich, shall surely come to want." 
u Be not thou one of them that strike hands, 
Or of them that: are sureties for debts." 
". . . . And yon clear spring that .... 
Wells softly forth, and visits the strong roots 
Of half the mighty forest, tells no tale 
Of all the good it does." [See Diagram 5.] 



ADJECTIVES. 59 

QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW. 

In how many ways are words distinguished 1 

By their forms, how are they distinguished % 

What is a Radical word? 

What is a Derivative word? 

What is a Simple word ? 

What is a Compound word ? 

What is a Prefix ? What is a Suffix? 

What is a Separable Radical ? — Inseparable ? 

By their uses, how are words distinguished 1 

What is a Noun? 

What is a Proper Noun? — A Common Noun? 

What are the distinctions of Common Nouns ? 

What is an Abstract Noun? — Collective? — Verbal? 

How are Nouns and Pronouns modified 1 

What does the term Masculine Gender denote ^ 

What Feminine Gender ? — What Neuter Gender ? 

How are the genders of Nouns determined % 

Why are Nouns and Pronouns varied in Person? 

What Nouns and Pronouns are of the First Person? 

What of the Second Person ? — What of the Third Person ? 

Why a distinction of Number ? 

What Nouns and Pronouns are of the Singular Number ? 

What are of the Plural Number ? 

How is the Plural of Nouns commonly formed 1 

Why are Nouns and Pronouns distinguished by Case ? 

When are Nouns and Pronouns in the Nominative Case ? 

When in the Possessive ? — the Objective ? — the Independent ? 

Nouns and Pronouns in the Possessive Case are placed with what 

class of words 1 — Why 1 
What is a Pronoun 1 Why are they used 1 
What are the classes ? Name them. 
What is a Personal Pronoun? Name them. 
What is a Relative Pronoun? Name them. 
What is an Interrogative Pronoun ? Name them. 
What is an Adjective Pronoun ? 
What are the modifications of Pronouns ^ 

ADJECTIVES. 

Rem. — As things possess individuality, and have points of difference 
from each other; so we have words which point out and describe those 
things, and mark their difference from other things. Hence, 

Def« 62. A word used to qualify or otherwise 
describe a noun or pronoun is 

An Adjective. 

Examples — Good — amiable — the — our — earnest — falling — 
young — conscientious — correct — famous. 



60 PART II. ETYMOLOGY ADJECTIVES. 



A good boy. 
An amiable young lady. 
Our national resources. 
An earnest culture. 



Falling leaves. 
Conscientious Christian. 
Correct expression. 
Famous orators. 



CLASSIFICATION. 
Rem. — Adjectives are used — 

1. To express a quality — as, good boy — red rose — sweet apule. 

2. To specify or limit — as, the book — thy pen — three boys. 

3. To express, incidentally, a condition, state, or act — as, lov- 

ing — wheeling — injured. Hence, 

Prim Adjectives are distinguished as 
Qualifying Adjectives, 
Specifying Adjectives, and 
Verbal Adjectives. > 

Def» 68. A word used to describe a noun, by 
expressing* a quality, is 

A Qualifying Adjective. 

Examples — Good — sweet — cold — honorable — amiable — vir- 
tuous. 



An honorable man. 
An amiable disposition. 
A virtuous woman. 



Some good fruit. 
Three sweet oranges. 
Much cold water. 



Deft 64, A word used to define or limit the ap- 
plication of its noun, is 

A Specifying Adjective. 

Examples — A — an — the — this — that — some — three — my. 

That mountain in the distance. 
Some good fruit. 
Three sweet oranges. 
My enemy. 

Obs. — Adjectives derived from proper nouns are called Pro* 
per Adjectives. 



A man of letters. 
An educated man. 
The question at issue. 
This road. 



Examples — Arabian — Grecian — Turkish — French. 



ADJECTIVES CLASSIFICATION. 61 

Rem* — Adjectives may specify — 

1. By simply pointing out things— by limiting or designating. 

2. By denoting relation of ownership, adaptation or origin. 

3. By denoting number, definite or indefinite. Hence, 

Prim Specifying* Adjectives are distinguished 
as Pure, Numeral, and Possessive. 

Deft 65. A word used only to point out or desig- 
nate things is A Pure Adjective. 

Examples — The — that — those- — such — next — same — other 



Thou art the man. 
That question is settled. 
Those books are received. 
"Such shames are common.' 



The next class. 

The same lesson. 

Other cares intrude. 

Any man may learn wisdom. 



Def. 66. A word used to describe things by in- 
dicating a relation of ownership, is 
A Possessive Adjective. 

Examples — My — our — their — whose — children's — John's — 
teacher's. 



My father — my neighbor. 

Our enemies. 

Their losses are severe. 



Children's shoes. 
John's horse. 
Teacher's absence. 



Note. — When a noun or pronoun assumes the possessive form, it loses 
its substantive character and becomes a definitive. The following illus- 
tration will make this truth quite evident : " John purchased an Arabian 
horse, and William an Indian pony. But John's horse having been in- 
jured, John exchanged it for William's pony." 

Now, it is allowed that the word " Arabian," in the above example, is 
an Adjective — it specifies " horse" as to its origin — a particular kind of 
horse. As truly is the word "John's" an Adjective; for, in this connec- 
tion, it specifies ' ' horse" as to its present condition — a particular horse. It 
should be remembered that the words " John" and " John's" differ quite as 
much, even in form, as do the words " Arabia" and " Arabian." But John 
is a Noun — and so is Arabia ; because they are used only as names. " Ara- 
bian" is an Adjective — and so is "John's;" because, in the sentence above, 
they are each used to describe Xl horse." Each word has a substantive 
origin — each, with its change of form, has changed its office. 

Note 2. — Nouns sometimes become Adjectives, without any change of 
form. 

Examples — A gold pen — an iron stove — cedar posts. 



62 PART II. ETYMOLOGY ADJECTIVES. 

NUMERAL ADJECTIVES. 
Def. 67. A word used to denote Number, is a 
Numeral Adjective. 

Examples — One — ten — first — second — twice — fourfold — few 
— many. 

Obs. 1. — Numeral Adjectives may be 

Cardinal One — Two — Three — Four. 

Ordinal First — Second — Third — Fourth. 

Multiplicative . . Once — Twice — Thrice. 

Indefinite Few — Many — Some (denoting number), 

Obs. 2. — A and An, when they denote number, are to be 
classed as Numeral Adjectives. 

EXAMPLES. 

" Not a drum was heard, nor a funeral note." 
" Not an instance is on record." 

VERBAL ADJECTIVES. 

Dei. 68e A word used to describe a Noun or 
Pronoun, by expressing*, incidentally, a condition, 
state, or act, is a Verbal Adjective. 

Obs. — This class of Adjectives consists of Participles — used 
primarily to describe Nouns and Pronouns. 

" Scaling yonder peak, 
I saw an eagle wheeling near its brow." 

In this example the sentence is, "I saw eagle ;" and "scaling 
yonder peak," is a phrase, used to describe " I." "Wheeling 
near its brow," describes " eagle." Scaling and wheeling are 
Participles used to describe a Noun and a Pronoun — hence they 
are in their office, Adjectives. [See Def. 62.] They describe 
by expressing (not in the character of Predicates, but), " inci- 
dentally, a condition, state, or act," of " I" and " eagle" — hence 
they are Verbal Adjectives.* 

* Teachers who are unwilling to allow that a Participle " conveying 
the idea of time," is an Adjective, will do well here to explain the subject 
of Participles to their classes, according to their peculiar views. I have 
chosen the above arrangement as being more simple; and, in my view, 
more fully answering to the common definition of an Adjective. For 
further remarks on this subject, see the article " Participles," in its proper 
place. 



ADJECTIVES MODIFICATION. 63 



EXAMPLES. 



A running brook. 
A standing pond. 
Disputed territory- 
Undoubted fact. 



I saw a boy running to school. 
Another standing by the way. 
It is a truth undisputed. 
It is a fact undoubted. 



Rem. — Participles used as Adjectives, commonly retain their verbal 
character, and like their verbs, may have objects after them. Hence, 

Priflt Verbal Adjectives are distinguished as 
Transitive and Intransitive. 

MODIFICATION OP ADJECTIVES. 

Rem. — Most Qualifying Adjectives express, by variations in form, 
different degrees of quality. Hence, 

Prin. Some Adjectives are varied in form, to 
denote Comparison. 

There may be four degrees of comparison. 

1. Diminutive, . . . bluish, . . . saltish, 

2. Positive, .... blue, . . . salt, 

3. Comparative, . . . bluer, . . . Salter, 

4. Superlative, . . . bluest. . . . saltest. 

Def. 69# The Diminutive Degree denotes an 
amount of the quality less than the Positive. 

It is commonly formed by adding ish, to the form of the 
Positive. 

Def. 70« The Positive Degree expresses quality 
in its simplest form, without a comparison. 

Deft Tl# The Comparative Degree expresses 
an increase of the Positive. 

It is commonly formed by adding er, to the form of the Posi- 
tive. 

Def. ?2. The Superlative Degree expresses the 
highest increase of the quality of the Adjective. 

It is commonly formed by adding est, to the form of the 
Positive. 



64 



PART II. — -ETYMOLOGY ADJECTIVES. 



Obs. 1.— By the use of other words the degrees of Comparison 
may be rendered indefinitely numerous. 

Examples — Cautious, somewhat cautious, very cautious, unusually cau- 
tious, remarkably cautious, exceedingly cautious, too little cautious, uncau- 
tious, quite uncautious. 

Obs. 2. — Comparison descending, is expressed by prefixing 
the words less and least to the Adjective. 

Wise, less wise, least wise ; ambitious, less ambitious, least 



Examples 
ambitious. 



Prin# 

parison. 

Positive. 
Good, 
Bad, 
Little, 
Many, 
Much, 

Far, 
Old, 



IRREGULAR COMPARISON. 
Some Adjectives are irregular in com- 



EXAMPLES. 

Comparative. 

better, 

worse, 

less, . 

more, 

more, 

farther, 

further, 

older, 

elder, 



S. fa: 
If* 



Superlative. 
. best. 

worst. 

least. 

most. 

most. 

farthest. 

furthermost. 

oldest. 

eldest. 



Obs. 1. — Most Adjectives of two or more syllables, are com- 
pared by prefixing the words more and most, or less and least, to 
the positive. 

EXAMPLES. 

Positive. Comparative. Superlative. 

Careful more careful most careful. 

Careful less careful least careful. 

Obs. 2. — Some Adjectives may be compared by either method 
specified above. 

EXAMPLES. 

Positive. Comparative. Superlative. 

Remote remoter remotest. 

Remote more remote most remote. 

Obs. 3. — Some Adjectives cannot be compared — the qualities 
they indicate not being susceptible of increase or diminution. 

Examples. — Round — scuare- triangular — infinite. 



ADJECTIVES CLASSIFICATION. 



65 



RECAPITULATION. 



Adjectives are distin- 
guished as 



Qualifying, < 



Specifying, 



_ Verbal, 



Superlative, 
Comparative, 
Positive, 
_ Diminutive. 
rPure, 
< Numeral, 
£ Possessive. 
{ Transitive, 
/ Intransitive. 



Exercises. 



Let the pupil determine which of the following Adjectives are 
Qualifying, which are Specifying, and which are Verbal. Of the Quali- 
fying Adjectives, which can be compared, and how compared — of the 
Specifying Adjectives, which are Pure, which Numeral, which Posses- 
sive — of the Verbal, which are Transitive, which are Intransitive. 



Able, 


False, 


That, 


Forgotten, 


Bold, 


Good, 


Three, 


Standing, 


Capable, 


Honest, 


Tenth, 


Loving, 


Doubtful, 


Infinite, 


Twice, 


Admonished 


Eager, 


Just, 


Several, 


Unknown. 



[jjp* Let the pupil point out the Adjectives, Nouns, and Pronouns, in the 
following sentences, and name their classes and modifications. Let him 
be careful to give a reason for the classification and modification of each, 
by repeating the appropriate definitions and observations. 

Good scholars secure the highest approbation of their Teacher. 

Some men do not give their children a proper education. 

A trifling accident often produces great results. 

An ignorant rich man is less esteemed than a wise poor man. 

The richest treasure mortal times afford, is, spotless reputation. 

u These dim vaults, 
These winding aisles, of human pomp or pride, 
Report not. No fantastic carvings show % 
The boast of our vain race, to change the form 
Of thy fair works. Thou art in the soft winds 
That run along the summits of these trees 
In music : — thou art in the cooler breath, 
That, from the inmost darkness of the place, 
Comes, scarcely felt : — the barky trunks, the ground. 
The fresh, moist ground, are all instinct with thee." 



66 PART II. ETYMOLOGY— ADJECTIVES. 

These describes " vaults ;" hence an Adjective — for " a word used to 

qualify or otherwise describe a noun or pronoun, is an Adjec- 
tive." 
" Specifies ; hence Specifying — for " an adjective used only to 

specify, is a Specifying Adjective." 

Dim qualifies " vaults ;" hence an Adjective — for " a word used to 

qualify or otherwise describe a noun or pronoun, is an Adjec- 
tive." 

" Expresses a quality; hence Qualifying — for " a word used to 

describe a noun by expressing a quality, is a Qualifying 

Adjective." 
Vaults is a name ; hence a Noun — for " the name of a being, place, 

or thing, is a Noun." 
" Name of a sort or class; hence Common — for " a name used 

to designate a class or sort of beings, places, or things, is a 

Common Noun." 
" Spoken of; hence Third Person — for " the name of a person 

or thing spoken of, is of the Third Person." 
" Denotes more than one; hence Plural Number — for "nouns 

denoting more than one, are of the Plural Number." 
" Subject of the sentence; hence Nominative Case — for "the 

subject of a sentence is in the Nominative Case." 

Winding, .describes "aisles;" hence an Adjective — for "a word used to 
qualify or otherwise describe a noun or pronoun, is an Adjec- 
tive." 
" Describes, by expressing a condition; hence Verbal — for "a 

word used to describe a noun by expressing incidentally a 
condition, state, or act, is a Verbal Adjective." 

Human ... describes "pomp" or "pride;" hence an Adjective — for "a 
word used to qualify or otherwise describe a noun or pronoun, 
is an Adjective." 
" Expresses a quality ; hence Ctualifying — for " a word used to 

describe a noun by expressing a quality, is a Ctualifying 
Adjective." 

[It is profitable to repeat the Definitions, until they become familiar : 
after that, they may be omitted — the parts of speech and the classes and 
modifications of the several words being simply named, as in the follow- 
ing exercise.] 

"No fantastic carvings show 
The boast of our vain race, to change the form 
Of thy fair works." 

Class. Person. Number. Case. 

No is an Adjective Specifying, limits " carvings." 

Fantastic Adjective Ctualifying, qualifies " carvings." 

Carvings Noun Common, Third, Plu. Nora, to "show." 

The Adjective Specifying, limits " boast." 

Boast Noun Common, Third, Sing. Obj. of '• show." 



VERBS CLASSIFICATION. 67 

_Jfp The teacher will abridge or extend these exercises at pleasure. 
Then let four sentences be made, each containing the word good, so that, 
in the first, it will qualify the Subject — in the second, the Object — in the 
third, the Object of a Phrase attached to the Subject — in the fourth, the 
object of a Phrase attached to the Object. 

In like manner use the words amiable — honest — industrious — wise — this — 
so me — loving — loved. 

aUESTIONS FOR REVIEW. 

What is an Adjective ? 

How many classes ? — their navies ? 

What is a Qualifying Adjective? 

What is a Specifying Adjective ? 

How are Specifying Adjectives classified ? — their names? 

What is a pure Specifying Adjective % 

What is a Numeral Adjective i. 

What is a Possessive Adjective 1 

What is a Verbal Adjective 1 

How are Adjectives modified ? 

How many Degrees of Comparison? — their names? 

What does the Diminutive Degree indicate 1 

What the Positive? — the Comparative? — the Superlative? 

How form the Diminutive? — the Comparative? — the Superlative? 

Are all Adjectives compared?- — Why not 1 

VERBS. 

Rem.— As all things in the universe live, move, or have a being, we 
necessarily have a class of words used to express the act, being, or state 
of those things. Hence, 

Def. 73. A word used to express the act, being, 
state of a person or thing, is 
A Verb. 

CLASSIFICATION. 

Rem. — The act expressed by some verbs, passes over to an object. 

Hence, 

Print Verbs are distinguished as 
Transitive, or Intransitive. 

Def« 74. A verb that expresses an action which 
terminates on an object, is 

A Transitive Verb. 

Examples — John saws ivood — God created heaven and earth. 



68 PART II. ETYMOLOGY VERBS. 

Def# 75. A verb that expresses the being* or 
state of its subject, or an action which does not 
terminate on an object, is 

An Intransitive Verb. 

Examples — Animals run — I sit — John is sleepy. 

Obs. — Some verbs are used transitively or intransitively. 

Examples — " Cold blows the wind." 

" The wind blows the dust." 

" It has swept through the earth. ,x 

" Jane has swept the floor." 

" God moves in a mysterious way." 

" Such influences do not move me." 

Obs. — -The verbs be, become, and other intransitive verbs, 
whose subjects are not represented as performing a physical 
act, are, by many grammarians, called 

Neuter Verbs. 
Examples — He is — God exists — we become wise — they die. 

MODIFICATION OF VERBS. 

Rem. — Verbs that denote action, have two methods of representing the 
action, 

1st — As done by its subject — as, Jane loves Lucy. 

2d — As done to its subject — as, Lncy is loved by Jane. 
Hence — 

Prill. Transitive Verbs have two voices — 
Active, and Passive. 

Def. 76. The Active Voice represents the Sub- 
ject as performing* an action. 

Example — Columbus discovered America. 

Def. 77. The Passive Voice represents the sub- 
ject as being* acted upon. 

Example — America was discovered by Columbus. 

Obs.— The subject of a verb in the active voice, commonly 
becomes the object of a preposition, when the verb takes the 
passive form ; and the object of a verb in the active voice, be- 
comes the subject, in the passive. 



VERBS' — MODIFICATION. 69 

Ex.mp.s- { SrislStefbyWilMarn. } Th * «™ *» *** 
" William," the subject of the Active Verb, becomes the object of " by," 

when the verb becomes Passive ; and " Charles," the object of the Active 

Verb, becomes the subject of the Passive. 

Note. — The Passive Voice of a verb is formed by adding the 
Passive Participle of that verb to the verb be. 

Examples — Active — To love, I fear, They worship. 

Passive— To be loved. I am feared. They are worshiped. 

Obs. — Most Transitive Verbs may take the Passive form. 
But few Intransitive Verbs take the Passive form. 
Example — We laughed at his clownish performance — (Active Intrans.) 
His clownish performance was laughed at. — (Passive.) 

MODE. 

Rem* — In addition to their primary signification, verbs perform a 
secondary office — i. e., they indicate some attendant or qualifying circum- 
stances. This is indicated by the variations of the form of the verb, or 
by prefixing auxiliary words. 

1. A verb may simply express a fact. 

2. It may express a fact as possible, probable, obligatory, &c. 

3. It may express a fact conditionally. 

4. It may express a command, or request. 

5. It may express the name of an act, or a fact unlimited by a subject. 
H^nce, 

Print Verbs have five modes of expressing their 
signification — 

Indicative,, Subjunctive, 

Potential, Imperative, and 

Infinitive. 

Def. 78. A verb used simply to indicate or as- 
sert a fact, or to ask a question, is in the 

Indicative Mode. 

Examples — " God created the heaven and the earth." 

" Is he not honest ?" u Whence come wars ?" 

Deft 79. A verb indicating probability, power, 
will, or obligation, of its subject, is in the 

Potential Mode. 
Obs. — Words which may be regarded as signs of the Poten- 



70 PART II.— ETYMOLOGY— VERES. 

tial Mode, are, may — might — can — could— must— shall — -should 

— will — would. 

Examples— I may go-~-you might have gone — John should study*- Mary 
can learn — It could not be done. 

Def. 80. A verb expressing* a fact conditionally 
(hypothetically) is in the 

Subjunctive Mode. 

Obs. — If, though, unless, and other conjunctions, are com- 
monly used with the Subjunctive Mode. But they are not to 
be regarded as the signs of this Mode ; for they are also used 
with the Indicative and the Potential. 

Examples— -If the boat goes to-day, I shall go in it. 

I would stay if I could conveniently. 
The condition expressed by " if the boat goes," is assumed as a fact 
— hence, " goes" is in the Indicative Mode. 

Note. — The Subjunctive Mode is limited to Auxiliary (Ad- 
verbial) Sentences. 

Def. 81. A verb used to command, or entreat, 
is in the 

Imperative Mode. 

Obs. — -As we can command only a person or thing addressed, 
the subject of an Imperative verb must be of the Second Per- 
son ; and, as a person addressed is supposed to be present to 
the speaker, the name of the subject is usually understood. 

Examples — Cry aloud — Spare not. 
But it is often expressed, 

" Go ye into all the world." 

• Def. 82. A verb used without limitation by a 
subject, is in the 

Infinitive Mode. 

Obs. 1. — The preposition to, is usually placed before the Infin- 
itive verb. 

Obs. 2. — As a verb in the Infinitive has no Subject, it can- 
not be a Predicate. It is used — 

1. Substantively ; as — To do good is the duty of all. 

2. Adjectively ; as — The way to do good. 

3. Adverbially ; as — I ought to do good. 



PARTICIPLES CLASSIFICATION, 71 

PARTICIPLES. 

Rem* — [See Appendix, Note D.] 

Deft 83. A word derived from a verb, retaining* 
the signification of its verb, while it also performs 
the office of some other part of speech, is called 

A Participle. 
Prill. Most verbs have three Participles. 

Present, . . . walking, loving, 

Past, .... walked, loved, 

Compound, . having walked, . having loved. 

Defi 84. The Present Participle represents time 
as present, when an .act expressed by it teas, is, or 
shall be, performed. 

Obs. — It is distinguished by its form. The Present Partici- 
ple of the active voice always ends in ing. 

Defi 85. The Past (or second) Participle repre- 
sents time as past, when the act expressed by it 
ivas, is, or shall be, performed. 

Obs. — The Past Participle of a Regular Verb ends in d or ed. 
Those of Irregular Yerbs end variously. [See list.] 

Deft 86» The Compound Participle consists of 
the Participle of a principal verb, added to the word 
having, or being, or to the two words having been. 

Examples — Having loved — being loved — having been loved. 

Note. — Participles have no distinct etymological character. 
They find a place in all the u parts of speech" — being used 

1. As a Noun — In the beginning — the plowing. 
William maintains a fair standing in society. 

2. As an Adjective — A running brook — a standing tree. 
That tree standing on the common, is the Charter Oak. 

3. As an Adverb — " 'Tis passing strange " 



72 part ii.— etymology— participles. 

4. As a Preposition — " I speak concerning Christ and the 
church." " Nothing was said touching that question," 

5. As a Conjunction — Seeing we cannot agree, the discussion 
may be dropt. 

6. As an Exclamation — Shocking ! 

7. In Predication with Auxiliary Verbs — We have been sing- 
ing. " The spring time of year is coming." 

Prin« Participles, like the verbs from which they 
are derived, are 

Transitive, or Intransitive. 

Obs. — A Participle used as a Preposition, must be Transitive. 
A Participle used as a Noun, Adjective, or in Predi- 
cation, may be Transitive. 
A Participle used as a Conjunction, or Adverb, must 
be Intransitive. 

Rem. — To render the classification more simple, I have preferred to 
class all Participles used chiefly to describe Nouns and Pronouns, as 
Adjectives — and, because they are derived from verbs and retain more or 
less of the properties of the verbs from which they are derived, I use the 
term Verbal Adjective. I have given my views on this subject more fully 
in Note D, Appendix. 

But Teachers who are unwilling to do more than simply to call it a 
Participle, will not find it difficult to adapt their views to the plan of this 
work ; — the pupil being taught that 

" Participles, like Adjectives, belong to Nouns and Pronouns" 

And, in the use of Diagrams, — 

Participles occupy the same position as Adjectives. 

TENSE. 

Rem.— Generally the form of the Verb denotes, not only the manner, 
but also the time, of the action or event expressed by it. Hence the dis- 
tinction of Tense. 

Def. 87# Tense is a modification of verbs, denot- 
ing* distinctions of time. 

Rem. — Time is present, past, or future 5 — It is also definite or indefi- 
nite. Hence, 

Print Most verbs have six Tenses. 
Present, Prior Past, 



Past Definite, 
Past Indefinite, 



Future, 
Prior Future. 



VERBS MODIFICATION. 73 

Def. 88. A verb expressing an action or event 
as now taking place, is in the 

Present Tense, 

EXAMPLES. 

Eliza studies. Do you hear the bell ? 

Ellen is reading. Emily may write that Diagram. 

Obs. — This is the simplest form of the verb ; — the sign do, is 
used to denote intensity, and in asking questions. 

Deft 89# A verb, when it indicates that the 
speaker or writer refers to some particular past 
time, is in the 

Past Tense Definite. 

Examples — I wrote you a letter — we walked to Troy. 

Obs. — In Regular Verbs, the sign of this Tense is d or ed, 
added to the root of the verb. In Irregular Verbs, a distinct 
form is used. [See List.] 

Deft 90» A verb denoting past time, without 
indicating a particular time, is in the 
Past Tense Indefinite. 



examples. 



I have been to Boston. 
We may have seen him. 



John has deceived me. 
Mary has been prospered. 



Obs. — Has and have, are the signs of this Tense. 

Note. — An act or event expressed by the Past Tense Inde- 
finite, may be made definite by the aid of an Adjunct word, 
phrase, or sentence. 

Examples — I have been to Boston to-day. 
We may have seen him when he was in town. 

Def» 91 • A verb denoting- past time, previous to 
some other past time, is in the 

Prior Past Tense. 

Examples — I had been to Boston once before that time. 
Obs. — Had is the sign of this Tense, 

4 



74 



PART II. ETYMOLOGY VERBS. 



Def» 92» A verb denoting* that an act or event 
will take place hereafter, is in the 

Future Tense. 

Example — James will return to-morrow— I shall see him. 

Obs. — Shall , in the First Person, and will, in the Second and 
Third, are the signs of this Tense. 

Deft 88 9 A verb denoting" time past, after a cer- 
tain future time, is in the 

Prior Future Tense. 

Example — We shall have finished this recitation before the 
next class will come. 

Obs. — Shall have and will have, are- the signs of this Tense. 

Rem. — Distinctions of time are not indicated with precision by the 
form of the Verb. This must be done by the use of Adjuncts. 

In the Potential Mode, the Tenses are quite indefinite — one form being 
often used for another. 

The same remarks will apply to Participles, to the Infinitive — the Sub- 
junctive — and sometimes the Indicative. 



recapitulation. 



m 

Ph <> 



Transitive, 



Intransitive 




Indicative, < 



Potential, 



Present, 
Past Definite, 
Past Indefinite, 
Prior Past, 
Future. 
Prior Future. 
r Present, 
J Past Definite, 
I Past Indefinite, 
L Prior Past. 



Subjunctive, 1 p ' 

Imperative, Present. 

T - •,• S Present, 

Infinitive, I p agt 

C Present, 
L Participle, < Past, 

£ Compound. 



VERBS EXERCISES. 75 



Exercises. 

Let each Verb and Participle in the following exercises be pointed 
out, and its Class and Modification given. 



I wrote. 

Thou art reading. 
James may recite. 
Mary can study. 



Retire. 
Let us alone. 
Permit me to pass. 
Let me go. 



Joining the multitude. 
Accustomed to study. 
Willing to be taught. 
Having seen the Teacher. 

It is pleasant to ride in a sail-boat. 

We are all fond of singing. 

Some are accustomed to sing by rote. 

The young ladies ought to have attended the lecture. 

By teaching others, we improve ourselves. 

Being accustomed to study, we can learn that lesson easily. 

Having been censured for idleness, John has resolved to be 

diligent. 
By endeavoring to please all, we fail to please any. 
u To be, or not to be — that is the question." 
" Spirit ! I feel that thou 
Wilt soon depart — 
This body is too weak longer to hold 
The immortal part. 
The ties of earth are loosening, 
They soon will break; 
And thou, even as a joyous bird, 
Thy flight wilt take 
To the eternal world." 
" Truth crushed to earth will rise again, 
The eternal years of God are hers : 
But Error, wounded, writhes in pain, 
And dies amid her worshipers." 

Crushed is [a Participle, from the verb crush ;] used here to de- 
scribe a condition of " Truth ;" hence, a verbal Adjective. 

Will rise asserts an act of " Truth;" hence, a Verb. 

" has no object; hence, Intransitive. 

" simply declares ; hence, Indicative Mode. 

" denotes time future; hence. Future Tense. 

Are asserts being of ' : years ;" hence, a Verb. 

" has no object; hence, Intransitive. 

11 simply declares; hence. Indicative Mode. 

" denotes time present ; hence. Present Tense. 



76 PART II.— ETYMOLOGY— "VERBS. 

Wounded is [a Participle, from the verb wound;] used here to de- 

" scribe a condition of "Error;'' hence, verbal Adjective. 

Writhes asserts an act of " Error j" hence, a Verb. 

" has no object ; hence. Intransitive. 

" simply declares ; hence, Indicative Mode. 

" denotes time present; hence, Present Tense. 

" The surging billows and the gamboling storms 
Come crouching to his feet." 

Surging is [a Participle, from the verb surge.] 

" used here to describe "billows;" hence, a verbal Adjective. 

Gamboling. ..is [a Participle^ from the verb gambol.] 

" used here to describe " storms ;" hence, a verbal Adjective. 

Come asserts an act of " billows " and " storms ;" hence, a Verb. 

" has no object; hence, Intransitive. 

" simply declares ; hence, Indicative Mode. 

" denotes time present; hence,. Present Tense. 

Crouching. . ..is [a Participle, from the verb crouch.] 

" used here to modify the act expressed by " come;" 

" (it declares the manner of coming ;) hence, an Adverb. 

" In the beginning God created the heaven and the earth." 

Beginning is [a Participle, from the verb begin.] 

" used here as the name of an event; hence, a verbal Noun. 

Created asserts an act of " God ;" hence, a Verb. 

" act passes to objects (heaven and earth) ; hence, Transitive. 

" simply declares ; hence, Indicative Mode. 

" denotes a particular time past ; hence, Past Tense Definite. 

GtUESTIONS FOR REVIEW. 

What is a Verb % 

What is the first distinction of Verbs 7 

What is a Transitive Verb 1 Intransitive 1 

What is a Neuter Verb 1 

What are the Modifications of Verbs 1 

When is a Verb in the Active Voice 1 

When is a Verb in the Passive Voice*? 

How is the Passive Voice of a Verb formed 7 

What Verbs take the Passive form 1 

What is denoted by the term Mode ? 

What are the Modes'? 

When is a Verb in the Indicative Mode 1 

When in the Potential 1— the Subjunctive'? 

When in the Imperative 7— the Infinitive 1 

What is a Participle 1 



VERBS CONJUGATION. 77 

How are Participles distinguished 1 
What is a Present Participle? — how formed'? 
What is a Past Participle ? — how formed? 
What is a Compound Participle ? — how formed 1 
To what " Parts of Speech " do Participles belong - ? 
What Participles must be Transitive ? 
What Participles may be Transitive 1 
What Participles must be Intransitive 1 

CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 

Rem. — We have seen that most verbs are varied in form to denote 
different modes and times of action or being. 

They are also varied to correspond with their subjects in Person and 
Number. 

The regular arrangement of the various forms of a verb, is called its 

Conjugation. 

Def. 94. A Verb which may be conjugated by 
one regular method of variation, to indicate its dif- 
ferent Modes and Tenses, and to correspond with its 
Subjects in Person and Number, is called 
A Regular Verb. 

Obs. — A Regular Verb forms its Past Tense Definite and 
Passive Participle, by adding d or ed to the root of the verb. 





EXAMPLES. 




Present. 

Love 

Fill 

Recite 


Past Definite. 

Loved 

Filled . 

Recited 


Participle. 

Loved. 

Filled. 

Recited. 



Def. 95. A Verb whose conjugation is not ac- 
cording to the regular formula, is called 



An Irregular Verb. 



Def. 96. A Verb that is not used 
Modes and Tenses, is called 


in all of the 


A Defective Verb. 




Present. Past. 
C Can, Could. 
List. ? May, Might. 
( Must. 


Present. 
Shall, 
Will, 
Ought, 


Past. 
Should. 
Would. 
Ought. 
Quoth. 



78 PART II. ETYMOLOGY VERBS. 

Def 97. A Verb that is prefixed to another verb, 
or to a Participle, to distinguish the Voice, Mode, or 
Tense, of the principal verb, is 

An Auxiliary Verb. 



lilST. < 



Pres. Past. 

Can, Could. ) Always 

May, Might. ) Auxiliary. 

Have, Had. ) Sometimes ( 

Will, Would. ) Principal. ( Be, Am, Was. 



Pres. 


Past. 


Shall, 


Should 


Must. 




Do, 


Did. 



Obs. — When used as Auxiliary Verbs — 

Can, may, must, shall (used to command) ; and will 
(signifying volition), are the signs of the Present, 
Potential. 

Could, might, should and would, are the signs of the 
Past Tense Definite, Potential. 

Have is the sign of the Past Tense Indefinite, Indica- 
tive. 

Shall have is the sign of the Prior Future, Indicative. 



May have 


u 


u 


Past Tense Indefinite, 
Potential. 


Might have 


a 


a 


Prior Past, Potential. 


Had 


u 


u 


Prior Past, Indicative. 


Shall 


a 


u 


Future (First Person). 


Will 


« 


u 


" (Second and Third 
Persons). 


Do* 


u 


a 


Present Indicative (in- 
tensive form). 


Did 


a 


u 


Past Definite, Indicative. 


Be 


a 


u 


Passive Voice, and is used 
in all the Modes and 
Tenses. 



* Do, with its variations, often has a very extensive signification — as, 
"I think as you do. 1 * " Edward studies more diligently than we do." 

In such instances, do adopts the signification of the previous verb. 

" 1 think as you think." " Edward studies more diligently than Ave 
study." 



VERBS CONJUGATION. 



79 



FORMULAE OF REGULAR VERBS. 

Intransitive Verb, WALK. 



Present Indicative. 



Past Definite. 



i Simple form — 1 Walk. 

\ Compound — I am Walkmg*. 
\ Simple —I Walked. 
\ Compound — I was Walking. 



Present Tense, j Thou 
( Give Definition.) j You 
[He 

J Thou 
1 You 
[He 



DECLENSION. 

Indicative Mode. — {Give the Definition^) 

Singular. Plural. 

f I walk 1 Person We walk 



Past Definite. 
{Give Def.) 



walked ~l 
walk $ 
walks 

walked 
walked "> 
walked ] 
walked 



Past Indefinite 
{Give Def.) 



Prior Past. 
{Give Def.) 



"I have walked 1 

Thou hast walked ) g 

You have walked ) ' 

[He has walked 3 

fl had walked 1 

I r 



i Ye 

{You 
They 

We 

Ye 

You 
They 

We 



walk 
walk 
walk 

walked 
walked 
walked 
walked 



C Ye 

{You 



i 



Future. 
{Give Def. 



i\ 



Thou hadst walked ) 
j You had walked J 
[ He had walked 

shall walk 

Thou wilt walk ) 

| You will walk $ 

[ He will walk 

f I shall have walked 

Prior J Thou will have walked ) 
Future j You will have walked \ 
[He will have walked 



have walked 

have walked 

have walked 

They have walked 

We had walked 

Ye had walked 

You had wal ked 

They had walked 

We shall walk 
Ye shall walk 
You shall walk 
They shall walk 



We 
Ye 
You 
They 



shall have walked 
will have walked 
will have walked 
will have walked 



Potential Mode. 



1 "\u. 

[He 



Singular, 
may* 



walk 



Present J Thouwzayart walk) 
present. <^ Yqu may walk j 



may 



walk 



fl mighty walk 

Past J Thou might est walk 

Definite. 1 You might walk 

[ He might walk 



1 Person 

2 « 

3 " 

1 " 

2 " 

3 " 



Plural. 

We may walk 
| Ye may walk 
j You may walk 

They may walk 

We might walk 
j Ye might walk 
[ You might walk 

They might walk 



* Can or must. 



■f Could, would, or should. 



80 



PART II. ETYMOLOGY VERBS. 



Singular. 



Past 
Indef. 



Prior 
Past. 



f 



I may 
Thou maijest 
You may 
He may 

might 



have vi diked 
have walked j 
have walked I 
have walked 
have walked 



Thou mightest have walked 
You might have walked 
He might have walked 



I: 



Person We 
S Ye 
{You 
They 
We 
Ye 
You 
They 



Plural, 
may have 
may have 
may have 
may have 
might have 
might have 
might have 
7night have 



walked 
walked 
walked 
walked 
walked 
walked 
walked 
walked 



Present. 



Past 

Definite. 



Subjunctive Mode. 

Singular. 

flf I walk 1 Person 

j If Thou walk Y 9 .. * u 

| If You walk J * 

[if He walk 3 " 

flf I walked 1 " 

I If Thou walked \ 9 « 
I If You walked i * 

\\i He walked 3 - " 

Imperative Mode. 



Plural. 

If We walk 
5 If Ye walk 
\ If You walk 

If They walk 

If We walked 

( If Ye walked 

( If You walked 

If They walked 



2 



Plural. 
Walk Ye or You 
Do Ye or You walk 



Singular. 
T3 {Walk' Thou) 

Present. | Do T hou walk \ 

Infinitive Mode. 

Present To walk 

Past Indefinite To have walked 

Participles. 

Present Walking- 

Compound Having Walked 



Synopsis of the Regular Verb, LOVE — Active Voice. 
Indicative Mode. 

Simple Form. Compound Form. 

Present I love I am loving 

Past Definite I loved I was \oving 

Past Indefinite ... I have loved I have been loving 

Prior Past I had loved 1 had been loving 

Future I shall love I shall be loving 

Prior Future I shall have loved ... I shall have been loving 

Potential Mode. 

Simple Form. Compound Form,. 

Present I can lo^e 1 may be loving 

Past Definite I could love I might be loving 

Past Indefinite I can have loved . . I may have been loving 

Prior Past I could have loved . . I might have been loving 



VERBS CONJUGATION. 



8i 



Subjunctive Mode. 

Present If I love Unless I be loving 

Past Definite Though I loved Except I were loving 



Present. 



Imperative Mode. 

Love thou 
Do thou love 

Participles. 



Be lov in<> 



Present "Loving 

Compound Having loved Having been loving 



Irregular Verb, BE. 

Indicative Mode. 



Present. 



Singular. 
am 
s Thou art ] 
1 You are i 

[He is : 



f! 



1 Person 

2 " 

3 " 



Plural. 
We are 
Ye are 
You are 
They are 



was 
wast j 
was J 
was 



(I 
Past I Thou 

Definite, j You 
[He 



(1 have been 

Past J Thou hast been 

Indefinite. *| You have been 

^ He has been 



1 Person We 

2 « 

3 « 



were 

were 

\ You were 

They were 



1 Person 

2 " 

3 " 



Prior 
Past. 



Future. 



CI had been 
J Thou hadst been 
] You had been 
l^He had been 



We have been 
{ Ye have been 
( You have been 

They have been 

1 Person We had been 

2 ^ J Ye had been 

I You had been 

3 " They had been 



f 1 

1 You 
LHe 



shall be 



will 
will 



be i 
be' 



1 Person 

2 " 

3 m 



We shall be 

(Ye will be 

( You will be 

They will be 



Prior 

Future. 1 You 
l^He 



Present. 



/I shall have been 
Thou wilt have been i 



will 
will 



have been J 
have been ' 



1 Person We 

2 ■ i Ye 
z ^You 

3 " They 



shall have been 
will have been 
will have been 
will have been 



Potential Mode. 

Singular. 
( I may be 

J Thou mayest be ) 
] You may be \ 
[ He mav be 
• 4 * 



1 Person 

! " S 



Plural. 
We 
Ye 
You 
Thev 



may be 
may be 
may be 
may be 



82 



PART II. ETYMOLOGY VERBS. 



Singular. ♦ Plural. 

{I might be 1 Person We might be 

Thou mightest be | ~ {{ i Ye might be 

You might be ) ( You might be 

He might be 3 " They might be 

Singular. Plural. 

(I may have been 1 Person We may have been 

Thou mayest have been ) 2 « $ Ye may have been 
You may have been $ \ You may have been 

He may have been 3 " They may have been 

Singular. Plural. 

{I might have been 1 Person We might have been 
Thou mightest have been ) 2 « J Ye might have been 
You might have been \ \ You might have been 

He might have been 3 " They might have been 

Subjunctive Mode. 

Singular. Plural. 

flfl be 1 Person If we be 

Present J If thou be > 2 i J If ye be 
present. « Ifyoube M i If you be 

[If he be 3 « If they be 

Singular. Plural. 

{If I were 1 Person If we were 

If thou wert \ A u J If ye were 

If you were J *■ (If you were 

If he were 3 " If they were 

Infinitive Mode. 

Present To be 

Past To have been 

Participles. 

Present Being 

Past Been 

Compound Having been 



Synopsis of the Verb, LOVE — Passive Voice. 

Indicative Mode. 

Present 1 am loved 

Past Definite I was loved 

Past Indefinite I have been loved 

Prior Past I had been loved 

Future I shall be loved 

Prior Future I shall have been loved 

Potential Mode. 

Present I may be loved 

Past Definite I might be loved 

Past Indefinite I may have been loved 

Prior Past I might have been loved 



VERBS CONJUGATION. 83 

Subjunctive Mode. 

Present . , If 1 be loved 

Past Definite If I were loved 

Imperative Mode. 

Singular. Plural. 

Present Be loved, or. Do you be loved, or 

Be thou loved Be ye loved 

Infinitive Mode. 

Present To be loved 

Past To have been loved 

Participles. 

Present Loved, or, being loved 

• Compound Having been loved 

Synopsis of the Irregular Verb, DO. 

Indicative Mode. 

Declarative Form. Interrogative Form. 

Present 1 do Do 1 1 

Past Definite I did Did I % 

Past Indefinite ... I have done Have I done 1 

Prior Past I had done Had I done 1 

Future 1 shall do Shall I do 1 

Prior Future I shall have done Shall I have done 1 

Potential Mode. 

Declarative Form. Interrogative Form. 

Present I may do May I do ? 

Past Definite I might do Might I do 1 

Past Indefinite I may have done May I have done 1 

Prior Past I might have done Might I have done 1 

Subjunctive Mode. 

Present If I do 

Past Definite If I did 

Imperative Mode. 
Present D 

Infinitive Mode. 

Present To do 

Past To have done 

Participles. 

Present Doing. 

Past Done 

Compound Having done 



84 



PART II. ETYMOLOGY VERBS. 



Exercises. 

Let the Pupils give the Class, Voice, Mode, Tense, Person, and Num- 
ber of the following Verbs — and complete the sentences. 



Am writing a letter. 
Are reading poetry. 
Didst see the eclipse. 
Had known duty. 
May feel the worm. 
Ought to study. 
Couldst have favored him. 
Thou love me. 
Couldst love to study. 



Has walked to Boston. 
Hast wandered from home. 
Shall learn wisdom. 
Will improve in writing. 
Could recite lessons. 
" Canst be false to any man." 
Wish to see home. 
Wilt have returned my books. 
Shall have returned from Europe. 



Repeat the First Person Singular of each Mode and Tense of the fol- 
lowing verbs : 



Am, 


Eat, 


Neglect, 


Receive, 


Arise, 


w* 


Need," 


Reject, 


Begin, 


Go, 


Owe, 


Select, 


Blow, 


Hold, 


- Ought, 


Squander. 


Come, 


Know, 


Practice, 


Yoke, 


Cut, 


Lay, 


Purchase, 


Touch, 


Do, 


Lie, 


Quiet, 


Use, 


Drink, 


Make, 


Qualify, 


Wish. 



Repeat the Third Person Plural of the same. 

LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 



Present Past Def. 

Abide abode 

Am or Be was , 

Arise arose 



Past Part. 
. abode 
.been 
. arisen 



Awake awoke, r awaked 

Bear bore, bare born 

Bear (to sustain). . .bore, bare borne 

Beat beat beaten, beat 

Begin began began 

Bend bent bent 

Bereave bereft, r bereft, r 

Beseech besought besought 

Bid bade, bid bidden, bid 

Bind bound bound 

Bite bit bitten, bit 

Bleed bled bled 

Blow blew blown 

Break broke broken 

Breed bred bred 



VERBS CLASSIFICATION. 85 

Present. Past Def. Past Part, 

Bring brought brought 

Build built, r built, r 

Burn burnt, r burnt, r 

Burst burst burst 

Buy bought bought 

Cast cast cast 

Catch caught caught 

Chide chid chidden, chid 

Choose chose chosen 

Cleave cleaved, clave cleaved 

Cleave clove, cleft cloven, cleft 

Cling clung clung 

Clothe clothed clad, r 

Come came come 

Cost cost cost 

Crow crew, r crowed 

Creep crept crept 

Cut cut cut 

Dare durst, r dared 

Deal dealt dealt 

Dig dug, r dug, r 

Do did done 

Draw drew drawn 

Dream dreamt, r dreamt, r 

Drive drove driven 

Drink drank drank, drunk 

Dwell dwelt, r dwelt, r 

Eat ate, eat eaten 

Fall fell fallen 

Feed fed fed 

Feel felt felt 

Fight fought fought 

Find found found 

Flee fled fled 

Fling flung flung 

Fly flew flown 

Forbear forbore • forborne 

Forget forgot, forgot forgotten 

Forsake forsook forsaken 

Freeze froze frozen 

Get got, gat got, gotten 

Gild gilt, r gilt, r 

Gird girt, r girt, r 

Give gave given 

Go went gone 

Grave graved graven, graved 

Grind ground ground 

Grow grew grown 

Have had had 

Hang hung hung 

Hear heard heard 

Heave hove, r hoven, r * 



86 PART II. ETYMOLOGY VERBS. 

Present. Past Def. Past Part. 

Hew hewed hewn, hewed 

Hide hid hidden, hid 

Hit hit hit 

Hold held held 

Hart hurt hurt 

Keep kept kept 

Kneel knelt, r . . kneeled, knelt 

Knit knit knit 

Know knew known 

Lade laded laden 

Lay laid laid 

Lead led led 

Leave left left 

Lend lent lent 

Let let let 

Lie lay lain 

Light lit, r lit, r 

Loose lost lost 

Make made made 

Mean meant * meant 

Meet met met 

Mow mowed mown, r 

Pay paid paid 

Put put put 

GLuit quit, r quit 

Read read read 

Rend rent rent 

Rid rid rid 

Ride rode rode, ridden 

Ring rang, rung rung 

Rise rose risen 

Rive rived riven, rived 

Rot rotted rotten, r 

Run ran, run run 

Saw sawed sawn, r 

Say said said 

See : . . . saw . . .* seen 

Seek sought sought 

Sell sold sold 

Send sent sent 

Set set set 

Shake shook shaken 

Shape shaped shapen, r 

Shave shaved shaven, r 

Shear sheared, r shorn, sheared 

Shed . shed shed 

Shine shone, r shone, r 

Show showed shown, showed 

Shoe shod • shod 

Shoot shot shot 

Shrink shrunk shrunk 

Shred shred shred 



VERBS CLASSIFICATION. 87 

Present Past Def. Past Part. 

Shut shut shut 

Sing- sung, sang sung 

Sink sunk sunk 

Sit sat sat 

Slay slew slain 

Sleep slept slept 

Slide slid slidden, slid 

Sling slung slung 

Slink slunk slunk 

Slit slit, r slit, r 

Smite smote smitten, smit 

Sow sowed sown, r 

Speak spoke, spake spoken 

Speed sped sped 

Spell spelt, r spelt 

Spend spent spen t 

Spill spilt spilt 

Spin spun spun 

Spit spit, spat spit 

Split split split 

Spread spread spread 

Spring sprung, sprang sprung 

Stand stood stood 

Steal stole stolen 

Stick stuck stuck 

Sting stung stung 

Stride strode, strid stridden 

Strike struck struck, stricken 

String strung strung 

Strive strove striven 

Strow, strew strowed, strewed strown, strewn, r 

Swear swore sworn 

Sweat sweat, r sweat 

Sweep swept swept 

Swell swelled swollen, r 

Swim swum, swam swum 

Swung swung swung 

Take took taken 

Teach taught taught 

Tear tore torn 

Tell told told 

Think thought thought 

Thrive thrived, throve thriven 

Throw threw thrown 

Thrust thrust thrust 

Tread trod trodden, trod 

Wax waxed waxen, r 

Wear wore worn 

Weave wove woven, wove 

Weep wept wept 

Wet wet wet 

Win , won won 



88 PART II.- — ETYMOLOGY—VERBS. 

Present. Past Def. Past Part 

Wind wound wound 

Work worked, wrought worked, wrought 

Wring wrung, r wrung, r 

Write wrote written, writ 

Obs. 1.— Words in the above list marked r, are sometimes 
used as Kegular Yerbs. Those written in Italics are not much 
used by modern writers. 

Obs. 2. — A Verb often has a Preposition or other prefix 
placed before it ; the Conjugation, however, remains the same. 

EXAMPLES. 

Take took taken. 

Mistake, raz'stook -mistaken. 

Overtake overtook overtaken. 

Rem.— The class should repeat this list in concert — prefixing to each 
verb one of the Personal Pronouns. For the Third Person a Noun may- 
be used— thus : 

I write I wrote I have written having written. 

You tread you trod you have trod having trod. 

He sweeps he swept he has swept having swept. 

John does John did John has done having done. 

Men sit men sat men have sat having sat. 

Some hear some heard some are heard having heard. 

They see they saw they are seen being seen. 

To the Transitive Verbs, Objects may be attached — thus : 

We saw wood we sawed wood we have sawn wood. 

Birds build nests birds built nests birds have built nests. 

Other variations in these concert exercises may be profitable — such as 
placing the woids new, to-day, &c, after the Present — yesterday, &c, after 
the Past Tense Definite — and heretofore, recently, &c. after the Past Tense 
Indefinite. Thus — 

I begin to-day I began yesterday I have begun recently. 

The wind blows now. .the wind blew then... .the wind has blown often. 

UNIPERSONAL VERBS. 

Deft 88t A Verb used only as the predicate of 
the Indefinite Pronoun a it" is called 
A Unipersonai Verb. 

EXAMPLES. 

It snows, Tt becomes, 

It rains, Tt behoves, 

It seems, It is evident. 

Methiriks is an anomalous form of the verb think. 



ADVERBS CLASSIFICATION. 89 



ADVERBS. 

Rem. — As actions are modified by circumstances, and as qualities vary 
in degree, so words expressing actions, and words denoting qualities, are 
modified by other words, denoting time, place, degree, manner, cause, <$*c. 
Hence, 

Def# 99. A word used to modify the significa- 
tion of a Verb, an Adjective, or another modifier, is 
An Adverb. 

Obs. 1. — Adverbs are of great utility in rendering the lan- 
guage concise and spirited. They are commonly substituted for 
Phrases. 

EXAMPLES. 

" Brilliantly" for " With a brilliant appearance." 

" Solemnly" for " In a solemn manner." 

" Vainly" for "In a vain attempt." 

" Here" for "In this place." 

" Now" for "At this time." 

" Brilliantly the glassy waters mirror back his smiles." 

" Solemnly he took the earthly state." 

" Vainly we offer each ample oblation." 

" Here sleeps he now." 

Obs. 2. — An Adverb is often used as a representative for the 
sentence or phrase to which it belongs. 

Examples — " While there we visited the Prison." 

" W/iile we -were at Auburn we visited the Prison." 
" Since then we have been friends." 
"Since that time we have been friends." 

Obs. 3.— An Adverb often modifies a Phrase. 

Examples — We went almost to Boston. 

Wilkes sailed quite around the world. 
" Engraved expressly for the Ladies' Garland." 

Obs. 4. — Adverbs may consist of Words, Phrases, and Sen- 
tences. 

1. A Word — The very best men sometimes commit faults. 

2. A Phrase — u In the beginning, God created the heaven and the earth." 

3. A Sentence — " They kneeled before they fought" 

Note. — Some Sentences are properly Adverbial, when they perform the 
office of an Adverb — although in strict construction, they may be Principal 
Sentences. 

There comes, methinks, amid the deaf 'ning roar, a still, small voice. 

Equivalent — there comes, apparently, a still, small voice. 



90 PAET II. ETYMOLOGY ADVERBS. 

CLASSIFICATION OF ADVERBS. 

Rem. — The classes of Adverbs are very numerous — the following are 
the most important : 

1. Time Now, then, always, to-morrow.* 

2. Place Here, there, hither, back. 

3. Degree More, very, exceedingly, so. 

4. Manner . . . .So, as, thus, carefully. 

5. Cause Hence, therefore. 

6. Interrogation Why ? How ? Wherefore ? Whence ? 

7. Number .... Often, once, twice. 

8. Doubt Perhaps, probably, possibly. 

9. Affirmation . . Yes, certainly, surely. 
] 0. Negation . . . No, nay, not. 

11. Means. ..." Scale the heavens] by strides of human 

wisdom." 

12. Effect . . . . " [It shrinks] to nothing in the grasp." — Young. 

MODIFICATION. 

Prill* Some Adverbs are modified, like Adjectives, 
by comparison. 

EXAMPLES. 

Pos. Cornp. Superl. 

Soon Sooner Soonest. 

Wisely More wisely Most wisely. 

Obs. — Some Adverbs are used only for Euphony. 

Examples — There are no idlers here. 

" It was now, too, mid- winter." 

" HP en now, where Alpine solitudes ascend, 
I sit me down, a pensive hour to spend ; 
And, placed on high, above the storm's career, 
Look downward, where a hundred realms appear." 

Now Modifies " sit" — denoting time; hence, an Adverb. 

s^mdesfsc'end. \ Modifies " ^"-denoting place ) hence, an Adverb. 

* To-morrow, to-day, yesterday, &c., are properly called Adverbs, when 
the phrases for which they are substituted would be used adverbially. As, 
" I go to-morrow." " When V' u On the morrow." 



ADVERBS EXERCISES. 9 1 

A P trspInd. h ° Ur } Modifies "sit"— denoting c«?^; hence, an Adverb. 
On high Modifies " placed" — denoting place ; hence, an Adverb. 

career ° rm S ( Modifies " placed" — denoting place ; hence, an Adverb. 

Downward Modifies " look" — denoting place; hence, an Adverb. 

reahns%ppear! i Modines " look"— denoting place ; hence, an Adverb. 

Exercises. 

t^T Let the following Adverbs be classified and their Modification 
given : 

How, Already, In a moment, 

Not, Quickly, In flower, 

There, Vilely, O'er the ruins, 

Soon, Eagerly, At pile. 

" Noiselessly around, 
From perch to perch the solitary bird 

Passes." 

"How is it possible not to feel a profound sense of the respon- 
sibleness of this republic to all future ages." 

" In a moment he flew quickly past." 

u For there the shield of the mighty is vilely cast awayP 

" Thy pencil glows in every flower ; 
Where Sense can reach, or Fancy rove, 
From hill to field, from field to grove, 
Across the wave, around the sky, 
There's not a spot, nor deep, nor high, 
Where the Creator has not trod, 
And left the footsteps of a God." 

u Eternal Hope ! when yonder spheres sublime 
Pealed their first notes to sound the march of Time, 
Thy joyous youth began — but not to fade : 
When all the sister planets have decayed ; 
When, wrapt in fire, the realms of ether glow, 
And Heaven's last thunder shakes the world below; 
Thou, undismayed, shait o'er the ruins smile, 
And light thy torch at Nature's funeral pile !" 



92 PART II. ETYMOLOGY PREPOSITIONS. 

" Earth keeps me here 
Awhile ; yet I shall leave it, and shall rise 
On fairer wings than thine, to skies more clear." 

Here Modifies " keeps" — denoting place ; hence, Adverb of Place. 

Awhile Modifies " keeps" — denoting time; hence, Adverb of Time. 

On wings. . .Modifies "rise" — denoting means ; hence, Adverb of Means. 
(" On fairer wings than thine," is the Modified Adverb.) 

Than thine .. Modifies "fairer" — denoting degree; hence, Adverb of De- 
gree. 

To skies . . . .Modifies " rise" — denoting place ; hence, Adverb of Place. 
(" To skies more clear," is the Modified Adverb.) 

More Modifies " clear" — denoting degree; hence, Adverb of Degree. 

u How much better satisfied he is /" 

How Modifies " much ;" hence, an Adverb. 

Much Modifies " better;" hence, an Adverb. 

Better Modifies " satisfied ;" hence, an Adverb. 

PREPOSITIONS. 

Def. 100. A word used to introduce a phrase, 
showing the relation of its object to the word which 
the phrase qualifies, is 

A Preposition. 

LIST. 

A "Wild winds and mad waves drive the vessel a wreck." 

About " We walked about town." 

Above " There is a ferry above the falls." 

Across " Across the lake, through bush and brake." 

Aboard " They came aboard ship." 

Aboard of " We succeeded in getting aboard of hex" 

After " He that cometh after me." 

Against " He that is not for me, is against me." 

Along " Winds that run along the summits of their hills." 

Amid " We stowed them amidships" 

Amidst " Amidst the mists, he thrusts his fists." 

Among " He became a great favorite among the boys. 

Amongst " We made diligent search amongst the rubbish." 

Around " With his martial cloak around him." 

As " That England can spare from her service such men as 

him." — Lord Brougham. 

Aslant "It struck aslant the beam." 

Astride " He sat astride the beam." 

As for " As for me and my house." 

As to " As to that, I have nothing to say," 



PREPOSITIONS— CLASSIFICATION. 93 

At ..... . " He was at work, at noon." 

Athwart " The dolphin leaped athwart her bows." 

Before " He stood before the people." 

Behind " Behind a rick of barley." 

Below " The captain was below decks." 

Beneath " Beneath the mouldering ruins." 

Beside " Beside its embers, red and clear." 

Besides " Besides punishment inflicted on this account." 

Between " Between whom, perfect friendship has existed." 

Betwixt " There is no difference betwixt them/' 

Beyond " Beyond all doubt," 

But " All went but me." 

But for " And but for these vile guns." 

By "To sail by Ephesus." " They stood by the cross," 

Concerning " Concerning whom I have before written." 

Despite of " Despite of all opposition." 

Devoid of " You live devoid of peace." 

During " During the present administration." 

Ere " And ere another evening's close." 

Except " Except these bonds." 

Excepting " Excepting that bad habit, the teacher was faultless." 

For " For me your tributary stores combine." 

Prom " Playful children, just* let loose from school." 

Erom among . . . . " From among thousand celestial ardors." 
Prom between. . ." He came from between the lakes." 
From off M This lady fly I take from off the grass." 

In " In the beginning." 

Instead of " Instead of the thorn, shall come up the fir." 

In lieu of " She has that sum in lieu of dower." 

Into "Into these glassy eyes, put light." 

Like " An hour like this, may well display the emptiness of 

human grandeur." 

IN ear " His residence is near the church." 

Next " Plural nominatives should be placed next their verbs." 

Nigh " Come not nigh me." 

Notwithstanding." Notwithstanding this, we remain friends." 

Of il Of the arts of peace." 

Off " He fell off the. bows." 

On " On a bed of green sea-flowers." 

Opposite " Our friend lives opposite the Exchange." 

Over " High (i'er their heads the weapons swung." 

Out of. " Out of the cooling brine to leap." 

Past " We came past Avon." 

Per " Twelve hundred dollars per annum." 

Previous to " Previous to this, his character has been good. 

Respecting " Nothing was known respecting him." 

Round " He went round the parish, making complaints." 



94 PART II. ETYMOLOGY PREPOSITIONS. 

Since " Since Saturday, he has not been seen." 

Save " All, save this little nook of land." 

Saving " With habits commendable, saving only this — he chews 

tobacco." 

Through " Dian's crest floats through the azure air." 

Throughout " JNor once, throughout that dismal night." 

Than " Than whom none higher sat." 

Till " He labored hard till noon." 

To " We purpose to go to Rochester to-day. 

Touching " Touching these things, whereof 1 am accused." 

Towards " They returned 1 towards evening." 

Under " Then was my horse killed under me." 

Underneath " And underneath his feet, he cast the darkness." 

Unlike " Unlike all that I had ever before seen." 

Until " We shall not return until Saturday." 

Unto " Unto him who rules the invisible armies of eternity." 

Up " The whole fleet was sailing up the river." 

Upon " Upon the word." 

Via " This stage is for Buffalo, via Batavia.'' 

With " With cautious steps, and slow." 

Within " Peace be within these walls." 

Without " Without it, what is man V 1 

Worth "He possessed an estate, worth five thousand pounds." 

Obs. 1. — The Antecedent term of relation — the word which 
the Phrase, introduced by a Preposition, qualifies — may be a 

Noun The house of God. 

Pronoun. . . Who of us shall go 1 I care not which of you. 
Adjective . . It is good for nothing. 

Verb We love to study, we delight in improvement. 

Participle. ..Jumping from a precipice. 
Adverb He is too wise to err. 

Obs. 2. — The Antecedent term of the relation expressed by 
a Preposition, is sometimes understood." 

" O refuge 
Meet for fainting pilgrims [ ] on this desert way." 

.Note. — In the above and similar examples, the ellipsis of the ante- 
cedent word need not be supplied in parsing, unless the sense plainly re- 
quires it. But the phrase may be parsed as qualifying the word which 
its Antecedent would qualify, if expressed. 

" Which flung its purple o'er his path to heaven." 

Here the phrase " to heaven," properly modifies leading, or a word of 
similar office, understood. But " leading," modified by this phrase, would 
qualify "path." Hence the phrase, " to heaven " — as a representative of 
the whole phrase " leading to heaven"— may be attached to ft path." 



PREPOSITIONS CLASSIFICATION. 95 

Obs. 3. — Prepositions introducing Substantive and Indepen- 
dent Phrases, have no Antecedents. 

Examples — "As for me and my house, we will serve the Lord." 

" And, on the whole, the sight was very painful." — Todd. 
" O for a lodge in some vast wilderness." — Cowper. 

Obs. 4. — The Consequent term of relation may be, 

A Word . . . . " He stood before the people." 

A Phrase. . . . " Time, spent in receiving impertinent visits. 11 

A Sentence . . " And cries of — live for ever — struck the skies." 

Obs. 5. — The Consequent term of relation — Object — is some- 
times understood. 

Examples — '■' And the waves are white below [ ]." 

" These crowd around [ ] to ask him of his health." 

Many grammarians call these Prepositions, Adverbs. This is true, 
with this modification — they are Prepositions, having their objects under- 
stood. But, as the Phrases of which they form parts, are always used 
adverbially, the Prepositions — as representatives of their Phrases, are 
Adverbs. Hence, when thus used, each Preposition performs a double 
office — Prepositional, as leader of the Phrase — Adverbial, as representa- 
tive of the Phrase. 

Obs. 6. — The Preposition is often understood — generally 
when its Phrase follows verbs of giving, selling, coming, &c. 
Examples — Mary gave [ ] me a rose — Mary gave a rose to me. 

I sold [ ] Mr. Shepard my wheat — sold wheat to Shepard. 
William has gone from home to-day — he will come [ 
home to-morrow. 

These crowd around. Mary gave me a rose. 
" Me " and " around " are — in the same sense, and by the same rule — 
Adverbs, viz. : as representatives of the Adverbial Phrases to which they 
severally belong. As words, simply, " me " is a Pronoun — object of to 
understood ; '■ around " is a Preposition — showing a relation of '■ crowd " 
and '• him," understood. 

Obs. 7. — Prepositions are sometimes incorporated with their 
Objects. 
Examples — I go a-fshing. He fell a-sleep. Come a-board. 

Obs. 8. — Prepositions are sometimes used in predication with 
Verbs. 

Examples — Its idle hopes are o'er. That was not thought of. 

Obs. 9. — A Preposition commonly indicates the office of the 
Phrase which it introduces. 

In, on, under, above, &c, indicate a relation of place, including the idea 
of rest. 

William's hat is in the hall, on the stool, under the table. 



96 PART II.— ETYMOLOGY— PREPOSITIONS. 

From, to, into, through, out of, &c, indicate a relation of place, with the 
idea of motion. 

u We came from New York to Boston." 

Of generally indicates a relation of possession, 

" The lay of the last minstrel" — the last minstreVs lay. 

As, like, than, &c, indicate a relation of comparison. 

" Thou hast been wiser all the while than me" — Southey's Letters. 

During, till, since, &c, indicate a relation or time, 

" We have vacation during the whole month of July." 

" Since Saturday, we have not seen him." 

But, as the kind of relation expressed by a given Preposition is not 
uniform, no perfect classification can be made. 

' For other observations on Prepositions, see Part HI — Prepositions. 



Exercises. 

u Where streams of earthly joy exhaust less rise? 1 

Of Shows a relation of " streams " and " joy." . . Hence 5 a Preposition. 

u O refuge 
Meet for fainting pilgrims. ' ' 

For . . Shows a relation of " meet" and " pilgrims." . . Hence, a Preposition. 

" On the plains, 
And spangled fields, and in the mazy vales, 
The living throngs of earth before Him fall, 
With thankful hymns, receiving from His hands 
Immortal life and gladness." 

On Shows a relation of [existing, understood, which qualifies] 

" throngs/' and " plains and fields." Hence, ... a Preposition. 

In Shows a relation of [existing, understood, which 

qualifies] " throngs" and " vales." Hence, a Preposition. 

Of Shows a relation of " throngs" and " earth" ... .a Preposition. 

Before Shows a relation of " fall" and " him." Hence, a Preposition. 

With Shows a relation of [worshiping, or some equiva- 
lent word understood, which qualifies] " throngs," 
and " hymns." Hence, a Preposition. 

ki The chief fault of Coleridge lies in the style, which has been 
justly objected to on account of its obscurity, general turgidness 
of diction, and a profusion of new-coined double epithets." 

u Southey, among all our living poets, stands aloof, and i alone 
in his glory.' For he alone of them all has adventured to illus- 
trate, in poems of magnitude, the different characters, customs, 
and manners of nations." 



CONJUNCTIONS. 



97 



CONJUNCTIONS. 

Rem. — It should be remembered that Prepositions connect words by 
showing a relation. 

Another class of words is used simply to connect words and phrases, 
similar in construction, and to introduce sentences. Hence, 

Del. 101 # A word used to join Words or Phrases, 

or to introduce a Sentence, is 

A Conjunction. 

Examples — Homer and Henry have perfect lessons, because 
they study diligently. 

Rem. — In this example, " and" connects" Homer" and " Henry" — two 
words having the same construction — and " because" introduces an Aux- 
iliary Sentence. 

List. — The following are the principal words which are com- 
monly used as Conjunctions. 
And, 

As well as, 
Also, 
Again, 
After, 
Besides, 
But, 
Further, 
Furthermore, 
However, 
Howsoever, 
Howbeit, 
Likewise, 
Moreover, 
Nay, 
Nor, 
Yet, 

Rem. — A few other words are sometimes used as Conjunctions. 
Obs. 1. — Conjunctions used to introduce Auxiliary Sentences, 
and some others, constitute also an index or type of the office 
of the sentence which they introduce. 

Examples — " //"he repent, forgive him." 

" As you journey, sweetly sing." 

In these examples, " if," renders its sentence conditional: — "as," indi- 
cates that its sentence (" you journey") modifies " sing," in respect to time. 

Note. — When, As, Since, and many other conjunctions used to introduce 
Auxiliary Sentences are called, by some Grammarians, Conjunctive Ad- 
verb*. "And the rest will I set in order ichen I come." We are told that 



As, 


Also. 


Because, 


Although, 


Before, 


Notwithstanding, 


Being, 


Though, 


Except, 


Both, 


Else, 


Either, 


For, 


Neither, 


If, 


Nov/, 


Incase, 


Or, 


Inasmuch as, 


Otherwise, 


Lest, 


So, 


Provided, 


Still, 


Since, 


Than, 


Unless, 


Then, 


When, 


Therefore, 


Whilst, 


Thus, 


While, 


Wherefore. 



98 PART 11.— -ETYMOLOGY-— CONJUNCTIONS. 

" when," in the above example, is an Adverb of Time, relating to the two 
verbs " Avill set," and " come." 

We are also told (and properly), that Adverbs of time are those which 
answer to the question " when ?" 

But does " when," jn the above example, a answer to the question when ?" 
Certainly not. Then it cannot be an Adverb of Time. But the Auxiliary 
Sentence, i: when I come, 7 ' does " answer to the question v:hen." It tells 
when " I will set the rest in order." Hence the sentence, " when I come," 
is an Adverb of Time ; and the word " when" — used only to introduce 
that sentence — connecting it to " will set," is a Conjunction. [See the 
preceding observation.] 

Obs. 2. — The conjunction nor generally performs a secondary 
office — that of a negative Adverb — 

" Man wants but little here below, 
Nor wants that little long." 

In this example, " nor" introduces the sentence, and also 
gives it a negative signification. 

The conjunction " lest" has sometimes a similar construction. 

"Love not sleep, lest thou come to poverty." 

Obs. 3. — Double Conjunctions. — Two conjunctions are some- 
times used to introduce the same sentence. 

Examples — u It seems as if they were instructed by some secret instinct." 
" Arid yet, fair bow, no fabling dreams." 

As though, but that, and some other words, are often used as 
double conjunctions. 

Obs. 4. — But, when an Auxiliary Sentence precedes a Princi- 
pal Sentence, the conjunctions introducing them are not to be 
regarded as double, although they may be in juxtaposition. 
[See this Obs.] 

[For other observations, the student is referred to Part III. 
Conjunctions.] 

Exercices. 
" God created the heaven and the earth." 

And Connects " heaven" and " earth ;" hence a Conjunction. 

" Temperance and frugality promote health and secure happiness" 

And Connects " temperance" and " frugality ;" hence, a Conjunction. 

And Connects " promote" and " secure ;" hence a Conjunction. 

"And the eyes of the sleepers waxed deadly and chill." 

And Introduces a sentence ; hence a Conjunction. 

And Connects " deadly" and " chill ," hence a Conjunction. 



CONJUNCTIONS EXCLAMATIONS* 99 

"And oft have I the pai7iful lesson conned. 

When disappointment mocked my wooing heart, 
Still of its own delusion weakly fond, 
' And from forbidden pleasures loth to part, 
Though shrinking oft beneath correction's deepest smart." 

And Introduces a Principal Sentence ; hence a Conjunction. 

When Introduces an Auxiliary Sentence (which modifies " conned" — 

denoting time) ; hence a Conjunction. 

And Connects " fond" and " both ;" hence a Conjunction. 

Though . . Connects " both" and " shrinking ;" hence a Conjunction. 

EXCLAMATION. 

Def. 102. A word used to express a sudden or 
intense emotion, is 

An Exclamation. 

Obs. 1. — Exclamations may consist— 

1. Of Letters— as, 01 Oh I Ah I Lot 

2. Of Words— commonly used as Nouns, Adjectives, 

Verbs, and Adverbs— as, Wo I Strange ! Hark ! 
Really ! Behold ! Shocking ! 

3. Of Phrases — -For shame ! 

4. Of Sentences — O, Ephraim I how can I give thee up ! 
Obs. 2. — Exclamations are followed by- 
Words— 4 ' 0, Liberty !" " Ah, the treasure !" 
Phrases — " 0, for a lodge in some vast wilderness !" 
Sentences — -" 0, bear me to some solitary cell -!" 

Rem. — The term Exclamation is preferred to Interjection, as being 
more appropriate to its office. 

Exclaim — " to cry out." This we do with the rise of Exclamations. 
Interject — " to cast between." We very seldom cast these words 
between others — they are generally placed before other words. 

WORDS OF EUPHONY. 

Deft 103« A word used chiefly for the sake of 
sound, is A Word of Euphony. 

Rem. — [For the various uses of Words of Euphony, see Part I., page 10.] 
Obs. — Words of Euphony may be such as are commonly used 



100 PART II. ETYMOLOGY VARIABLE WORDS. 

as any other "part of speech." In parsing, a word is to be 
called a Word of Euphony, only when its chief office is Rhetorical. 

QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW. 

Adverbs — Prepositions — Conjunctions — Exclamations. 
What is an Adverb 1 
Why are they used 1 
For what are they often substituted 1 
Adverbs may consist of what 1 
What are the classes of Adverbs 7 
Are Adverbs Modified 1 In what respect 1 
When is an Adverb used only for Euphony 7 
What is a Preposition 1 
What is the " Antecedent term of relation" 1 
The Antecedent may consist of what 1 
Is it always expressed ? Examples 1 
When is it not to be expressed *? 
What is the " Consequent term of relation'"? 
The Consequent may consist of what 1 
Is it always expressed ? Examples 1 

When not expressed, what offices does the Preposition perform 1 
Is the Preposition always expressed 1 
What is a Conjunction 1 

What Conjunctions are used only to introduce Auxiliarv Sentences 1 
What is said of the Conjunctions nor, lest, fyc. ? 
What are double Conjunctions % 
What is an Exclamation 1 
Exclamations may consist of what 1 
Exclamations are followed by what 7 
What is a word of Euphony 1 



WORDS VARYING IN THEIR ETYMOLOGY. 

Rem. — Words are similar in Orthoepy, when they are pronounced with 
the same sound of the same letter. 
Examples — There, their ; all, awl. 

They are similar in Orthography, when they are formed by the same 
letters, similarly arranged. 

Examples — Read, read; ex' tract, extract'. 

They are similar in Etymology, when they perform a similar office in 
the construction of a phrase or sentence. 

But it is plain that words similar in Orthoepy differ in their Orthogra- 
phy—and words of similar Orthograprry perform widely different offices 
in different connections. 



^ It should always be remembered by the scholar, that the office of a word, 
— not its shape — determines its Etymology. 



VARIABLE OFFICES OF WORDS. 101 

Among the words of similar Orthography that differ in their 
Etymology, are the following : 

A Adj Webster wrote a Dictionary-Walker wrote another. 

A Prep Wild winds and mad waves drive the vessel a wreck. 

About Prep He wandered about the country. 

About Adv He is about fifty years of age. 

Above Prep He stands above us. 

Above Adv He is above forty years of age. 

After Prep He that cometh after me. 

After Conj He came after you left. 

After Adj He was in the after part of the ship. 

As Prep To redeem such a rebel as me. — Wesley. 

As Conj Just as the twig is bent the tree 's inclined. 

As Adv Nature, as far as art can do it, should be imitated. 

As Pron Such as 1 have give I unto thee. 

Before Prep He stood before the people. 

Before Conj They kneeled before they fought. 

Both Adj Situated on both sides of the river. 

Both Pron Lepidus flatters both, of both is flattered. 

Both Conj And now he is both loved and respected. 

But Prep All but me were rewarded. 

But Conj I go — but I return. 

But Adv If we go, we can but die. 

But Verb I cannot but rejoice at his unexpected prosperity. 

Ere Prep And ere another evening's close. 

Ere Conj And ere we could arrive [at] the point proposed. 

For Prep They traveled /or pleasure. 

For Conj He cannot be a scholar, for he will not study. 

Like Prep Nature all blooming like thee. 

Like Adj Like causes produce like effects. 

Near Adj At the near approach of the star of day. 

Near Prep We live nea.r the springs. 

Near Adv Books were never near so numerous. 

Neither . . . Adj He can debate on neither side of the question. 

Neither . . . Pron We saw neither of them. 

Neither . . . Conj The boy could neither read nor write. 

Next Adj The next generation. 

Next Prep Adjectives should be placed next their substantives. 

Off Adj The off ox should keep the furrow. 

Off Prep William fell off the load. 

Only Adj Virtue only makes us happy. 

Only Adv Only observe what a swarm is running after her. 

Opposite . . Adj On the opposite bank of the river. 

Opposite . . Prep We stood opposite the Exchange. 

Past Adj A past transaction. 

Past Prep It was past mid-day. 

Round Adj Like the round ocean. 

Round Prep Flung round, the bier. 

Still Adj Still waters reflect a milder light. 

Still Adv Still struggling, he strives to stand. 

Still Conj Still, the reflection has troubled me. 

Since Prep Since yesterday, we have taken nothing. 



102 PART II. ETYMOLOGY— OBSERVATIONS. 

Since Conj Since I cannot go, I will be contented here. 

So Adj Solomon was wise — we are not so. 

So Adv So calm, so bright. 

Than Conj She is more nice than wise. 

Than Prep Than whom none higher sat. 

Than Pron We have more than heart can wish. 

That Adj That book is mine. 

That Pron. Rel. Him that cometh unto me. 

That Pron. Adj. Forgive me my foul murder'? that cannot be 

That Conj I am glad that he has lived thus long. 

Then Adv Then, when I am thy captive, talk of chains. 

Then Conj Then I'll look up. 

Then Pron Till then. 

Till . . Prep They labored hard till night. 

Till Conj Till I come, give attention to reading. 

Until Prep From morn, even until night. 

Until Conj Until the day dawn. 

What Adj At what hour did you arrive 7 

What. . . . .Rel. Pron. What Reason weaves, by Passion is undone. 

What Inter. Pron What does it avail 1 

What Exclama . . What ! is thy servant a dog ! 

Within . . . Prep To inscribe a circle within a circle. 

Within . . . Adj Received on the zoithin bond, five hundred dollars. 

OBSERVATIONS ON SOME OF THE FOREGOING WORDS. 

As When this word introduces a sentence, it is properly 

called a Conjunction. 
Example — " As ye journey, sweetly sing." 

When it introduces a phrase, it is a preposition, and is 
then generally equivalent to the preposition for. 

Examples — " He gave me this as the latest news from the army." 

" I am always fearful, lest I should tell you that for news, 

with which you are well acquainted." — Cowper. 
" For example." 

" I mention these as a few exemplifications." 
u And melancholy marked him. for her own." — Gray. 

" They will seek out some particular herb which they do 

not use as food." — Taylor. 
"His friends were counted as his enemies." — Sigourney. 
"All mark thee/<?r a prey." — Cowper. 

The above examples clearly indicate that as is sometimes a 
Preposition. 

Rem. — Many Grammarians insist that as, in the above and similar 
examples, " must be a Conjunction, because, in most cases, it connects 
words in apposition. 

The same is true of other Prepositions. 

Examples — In the city of New York. 



VARIABLE OFFICES OF WORDS. 103 

u thy shadowy hand was seen 

Writing thy name of Death." — Pollock. 
I thought you an honest man. 
I took you for an honest man. 
All, old and young, went. 
All, from the oldest to the youngest, went. 
{ And cries of — live forever — struck the skies." 

We do not claim that these examples contain words precisely 
in apposition — as much so, however, as any cases claimed to be 
connected by as. 

As — is often used (by ellipsis of one or more words) as a 
Pronoun. [See Rem. on than, below.] 

But. . . . This word — like most Conjunctions — is derived from a 
Saxon Verb signifying u except" — " set aside" — 4 - fail," 
&c. [See Webster 's Improved Grammar.] 
In the list above given, the word retains its original significa- 
tion and office. 

Examples — " I cannot but rejoice." 

I cannot fail — omit to rejoice. 

Here a but " is a Yerb — Potential Mode — and u rejoice " is a 
Verb — Infinitive Mode, depending on "but." 

But is also used instead of the words, if it were not.. 
11 And but for these vile guns, he would himself have been a soldier." 

Like . . . When this word qualifies a word, it is an Adjective — 
when it represents its noun, it is an Adjective Pronoun. 
But when it shows a relation of two words, it is a Pre- 
position. 

Examples — " These armies once lived, and breathed, and felt like us." — 
Morgan. 
" An hour like this, may well display the emptiness of hu- 
man grandeur." 

Than . . This word always expresses comparison, and comparison 
implies a relation. When this relation is expressed by 
words, than is a Preposition. When it is expressed by 
sentences ; and when words, phrases, or sentences, are 
merely connected by it, it is a Conjunction. 
The use of it as a Preposition is sanctioned by good 
authority — ancient and modern. 

Examples — " They are stronger than lions." 

u Thou shalt have no other Gods than me." — Com. Prayer. 

" But in faith, she had been wiser than me." — Southey. 

" Their works are more perfect than those of men." — Taylor. 



104 PART IL ETYMOLOGY OBSERVATIONS. 

Many words are used as Prepositions or Conjunctions, accord- 
ing as they introduce Phrases or Sentences. 

Examples — John arrived before me. 
John arrived before I did. 
John arrived a little earlier than I [than me], 
John arrived a little earlier than I did. 
John arrived as soon as I [as me]. 
John arrived as soon as I did. 

" Before me" ... Is a Phrase, used to modify " arrived ;" hence,, an Adverb. 
11 Before I did".. Is a Sentence, used to modify " arrived ;" hence, an Adverb. 

u Than I" Is a Phrase, used to modify " arrived ;" hence, an Adverb. 

" Than I did" . . Is a Sentence, used to modify " arrived ;" hence, an Adverb. 

" As I" Is a Phrase, used to modify " arrived ;" hence, an Adverb. 

" As I dtd" Is a Sentence, used to modify " arrived ;" hence, an Adverb. 

Of the many words thus used as Prepositions and Conjunc- 
tions, custom allows two — as and than — to be followed by Pro- 
nouns in the Nominative form. 

Examples — " Thou art wiser than I."* 

Than is also used as a Pronoun, when it is the subject or 
object of a Verb ; as — " He does no more than is done by the 
rabbit." " Than," in this example, is the subject of " is done" — 
hence, a Pronoun. But in this and similar examples, it may 
become a Preposition by supplying the ellipsis ; as — " He does 
no more than [that which] is done by the rabbit." This is 
probably the more correct rendering. 

That... This word is primarily an Adjective. But it is also 
used as a Pronoun. And, in consequence of the ob- 
scurity of an ellipsis (which may be generally supplied), 
it is often used as a Conjunction. 
Examples—" He demanded that payment should be made." 
This may be resolved into two sentences. 
" Payment should be made." 
" He demanded that." 

Here " that" is the object of " demanded," and is substituted 
for the whole of the former sentence. But, as the sense is not 



* Shall we — as some Grammarians insist — call " than" a Conjunction, 
and require the "ellipsis to be supplied'?" Thou art wiser than 1 am 
wiser ! T/wu art wiser than I am wise 1 

Shall the modification of one word determine the etymology of another 
connected with it 1 Should not rather the oifice of each word determine its 
etymology, and the etymologv thus determined, determine the form of 
another word depending on it for sense 1 



VARIABLE OFFICES OF WORDS. 105 

I 

obscured, and as a perplexing tautology is thereby obviated, I 
prefer to call it a Conjunction. It is commonly used to intro- 
duce an Auxiliary Sentence — and when it follows a Transitive 
Verb, the Auxiliary is the logical object of the Phrase or Sen- 
tence. (See Diagram 24, page 32.) 

Worth . . Worth indicates value — and value implies a relation — ■ 
and relation of words is commonly expressed by a 
Preposition. 
Example — " He possessed an estate worth five hundred pounds per 
annum." 
" He has an annuity of five hundred pounds." 

This word is used also as a Noun. 
Example — " He was a man of great worth." 

So The word so, is commonly used as an Adverb. But 

it is often used as a substitute for a Word, a Phrase, 
or a Sentence. 

Examples — You are industrious — not so. 

John has become a good scholar. 
So 1 predicted. 

It is sometimes a Conjunction used for if. 

Examples — " I'll frown, and be perverse, and say thee nay, 
So thou wilt woo." — Juliet. 



THE TWOFOLD OFFICE OF SOME WOEDS. 

Obs. — Some words perform, at the same time, two distinct 
offices — a 'primary and a secondary office. 

" The surging billows and the gamboling storms 
Come, crouching, to his feet." 
Here " surging" — being derived! "Crouching" — being derived from 



from the verb surge, and partaking 
of the nature of that verb by denot- 
ing a particular kind or mode of 
action — is a modification of a Verb — 
a Participle. But, because it is here 
used as descriptive of " billows" — 
denoting a condition of billows — it 
is an Adjective. And this being the 
principal -use of the word in this con- 
nection, we call it a Verbal Adjec- 
tive. ! an Adverb. 

The same remarks apply to "gam- j 
boling," as descriptive of "storms." ! 

5* 



the verb crouch, and partaking of 
the nature of that verb by denoting a 
particular kind or mode of action — 
is a modification of a Verb — a Par- 
ticiple. But, because it is here used 
to modify "come" — denoting the 
manner of the action expressed by 
that word — it is an Adverb. And, 
this being the principal use of the 
word in this connection, we call it 



106 



PART II. ETYMOLOGY OBSERVATIONS. 



We use Rice's gold pens." 



Here the word " gold," being the 
name of a metal, is a Noun. But, 
because it is here used to indicate a 
kind of pen [not with respect to its 
shape or size, but] with respect to 
its material, it is an Adjective. 
And this last, being its principal 
office, is the office in which it is 
recognized — and we parse it accord- 
ingly. The Noun becomes an Ad- 
jective. 



The word "Rice's" (omitting 
the 7 s) is a name — hence a Noun. 
Bat, because it is here used to indi- 
cate a kind of pen — not with re- 
spect to ownership, for Rice does 
not own it, bat [partly with respect 
to its shape or size, and also] with 
respect to the manufactory at which 
it was made, and, by inference, the 
quality — it is an Adjective. And 
this last, being its principal office, is 
the office in which it is recognized — 
and we parse it accordingly. The 
Noun becomes an Adjective. 

Nor — composed of not and other — retains the offices of its 
elements. 

"Nor will I at my hunrble lot repine." 

Here " nor" — being used to modify " repine" — is an Adverb of Nega- 
tion. But, because it introduces a Sentence, additional to a former Sen- 
tence, it is a Conjunction : like many other conjunctions, it indicates the 
office of the sentence which it introduces, making it negative. 

Obs. — Some words perform an individual office, and at the 
same time a representative office. 

1. Bring hither that book. ) '■&■„„* JZ\^*. „ n „+^„^ 
% Bring to** that book. [ E ^SJe^ ' 

3. Bring me that book. ) eacn correct - 

In the examples above, 
u Hither" modifies I 
" bring ;" hence, it is | 
an Adverb. 



1 To me" modifies 
"bring;" hence, it is 
an Adverb. 



[To] " me" modifies 
" bring;" hence, it is 
an Adverb. 



" Me," in the third example, as a representative for the Phrase (to me) 
of which it is a part, is an Adverb. But, being used for a Noun, it is a 
Pronoun ; and, as the object of the phrase, is in the Objective Case. 

" The captain had gone below." 

" Below" Shows a relation of " had gone" to deck understood. 

Hence, it is a Preposition. 
" Below [deck]" Modifies < { had gone" (denoting place). Hence, it is an 

Adverb. 
" Below," As a rep?-ese?itative of its (Adverbial) Phrase, modifies 

" had gone" (denoting place). Hence, it is an Adverb. 
For farther illustrations, see Obs. 5 and 6, page 95. 

Rem. — A careful examination of the genius of the English language 
will disclose the fact, that a great majority of words perform at the same 
time two or more distinct offices. The Rule to be observed in parsing is,* 
that a word should be parsed according to its principal office in the sentence. 



DIAGRAMS THEIR OFFICES. 107 

PriiL " The office of a word in a Sentence de- 
termines its place in the Diagram. 7 ' Then 

CD 




Obs. — When a Sentence is properly placed in Diagram, the 
young pupil can easily determine the office (and consequently 
the class) of each word, and its most important modifications. 
Thus in the Diagram above, 1 and 25 occupy the place of Nouns 
or Pronouns, which must be in the Nominative Case. 

2, 7, 11, and 26, are Verbs — 2, 11, and 26, are Transitive — 
7 is Intransitive. 

3 and 12 are Nouns or Pronouns, and must be in the Ob- 
jective Case. 

22 and 16 may be Nouns, Pronouns, or Infinitive Verbs, and 
are Objects of Prepositions. 

4, 5, 13, 14, 20, are Adjectives. 

8, 9, are Adverbs. 

17, 1 8, 19, 23, 24, are Adjectives— if 22, 16, are Nouns or 
Pronouns. They are Adverbs — if 22, 16, are Infinitive Verbs. 

6 and x are Relative Pronouns — 6 is in the Nominative 
Case — x is in the Objective Case. 

6 to 19, inclusive, constitute an Adjective Sentence, which 
describes (1.) 

(25. 26, x.) constitute an Adjective Sentence, which describes 
(22.) 

(21, 22, 23, 24,) and (15, 16, 17, 18, 19,) constitute Phrases— 
and, because they are attached to 3 and 12, they are Adjectives. 
21 and 15 are Prepositions 

and 10 are Conjunctions — introduces a Sentence — 10 
connects two words. 

The Sentence to which this Diagram is applicable is Complex. 
The Principal Sentence is Simple — Transitive — the Subject of 
which is qualified by two Words and one Sentence — the Object 
is qualified by one Word and one Phrase. 



108 PART II. ETYMOLOGY EXERCISES. 

The Sentence "which is Auxiliary to the Subject of the Prin- 
cipal Sentence is a Compound Mixed Sentence — its first Predi- 
cate being Intransitive, the second Transitive. 

UP The Teacher will find exercises of this sort beneficial chiefly to 
beginners, who may be associated with more advanced scholars.* 

EXERCISES IN ETYMOLOGICAL ANALYSIS AND 

PARSING. 

a Every motive therefore, of justice and of policy, of dignity 
and prudence, urges you to allay the ferment in America, by a 
removal of your troops from Boston ; by a repeal of your Acts 
of Parliament ; and by a demonstration of amicable dispositions 
towards your Colonies." — Pitt. 

" From the shore, 
Eat into caverns by the restless wave, 
And forest-rustling 'mountains, comes a voice, 
That solemn sounding, bids the world prepare. " 

Thomson. 
u There Joy gilds the mountains, all purple and bright ; 
And Peace, in the vales, rests in gentle repose ; 
And Love, like a spirit of beauty and light, 
Breathes sweetness abroad, on the air as it blows." 

F. S. Jeivelle. 
u There is a stern round tower of other days. 
Firm as a fortress, with its fence of stone ; 
Such as an army's baffled strength delays, 
Standing with half its battlements alone, 
And with two thousand years of Ivy overgrown." — Byron. 
11 Amidst the murmuring fountains 
Of everlasting life, 
Thy spirit like a bounding bark, 
With song and gladness rife, 
Goes gliding to the palmy shore, 
That lies in sunny light before." — Hesperian. 

" Let me hear thy voice awake, and bid her 
Give me new and glorious hopes, like sunbeams, 
Gleaming thro' the dark, but scattering clouds ; 
And strength of soul, to outbrave the thunder blast, 
And like the eagle, sunward, mount, o'er rock, 
And cloud, and storm, forever."— F. S. Jeivelle. 



EXERCISES IN ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 109 

•• The firmament grows brighter 
With every golden grain. 
As handful after handful 

Falls on the azure plain. 51 — G. Duffield* Jr. 
" He sang the fond, 
The wild imaginings of his young heart. 
For which he gave up home, and friends, and all : 
And his sweet tones were clear, and calmly proud : 
But. when he told the life of misery. 
The breaking bubble, the sad heart, the fame, 
Of which too late he proved the emptiness. 
His notes were faint and cheerless as the heart 
Which sang them." — Miss Timble. 
•■ The walls 
That close the Universe with crystal in. 
Are eloquent with voices that proclaim 
The unseen glories of immensity. 
In harmonies, too perfect and too high 
For aught but beings of celestial mould. 
And speak to man in one eternal hymn, 
Unfading beauty, and unyielding power/' — Percival. 
K The silvery tide will bear thee, 
Amid the sound and bloom. 
Of many a green and blessed isle. 
Whose shining banks illume 
Each wandering bark, and pathway dim 
Along the passing billows' brim.'' — Hesperian. 

-• For lo! ten thousand torches flame and flare 

Upon the midnight air. 
Blotting the lights of heaven 

With one portentous glare. 
Behold the fragrant smoke in many a fold 

Ascending floats along the fiery sky, 

And hangeth visible on high, 

A dark, and waving canopy ! n — Southey. 

" liberty ! I wait for thee. 

To break this chain and dungeon bar ; 
I hear thy spirit calling me. 

Deep in the frozen north afar. 
With voice like GocVs, and visage like a star/' 

Placidt, 



110 PART II.- — ETYMOLOGY — EXERCISES. 

" A sound system of government requires the people to read, 
and inform themselves upon political subjects ; else they are 
the prey of every quack, every impostor, and every agitator. 
who may practise his trade in the country." — Ld. Brougham. 

" His Lordship knew full well, that the circulation of News- 
papers would create a spirit of inquiry, that would search all 
the hidden abominations of royalty; would rouse to free 
thought the slaves of custom and despotic favor ; would strip 
from titled oppressors the gaudy covering which dazzles ^ the 
unthinking multitude ; would develope a moral power, that 
would sweep away every stronghold of error and wrong." 

H. T. B-. 

u Greece has had most abundant cause to mourn on account 
of the wide-spread influence of this great enemy of the human 
race. " — D wight. 

" Our ablest patriots are looking out on the deep vexed with 
storms, with great forebodings and failings of heart, for fear of 
the things that are coming upon us." — Bucher. 

u It has been the work of the Coalition to destroy all ; to 
place Italy again under the galling yoke of Austria ; to take 
from her, with political liberty, civil and religious freedom, and 
even freedom of thought ; to corrupt her morals, and to heap 
upon her the utmost degree of degradation." — Sismondi. 

"What we do at home, we do for Europe, and in Europe." 

Mitchell. 

" After some hours' carnage, during which the streets ran 
with blood, peace was restored." — Sumner. 

" I firmly believe, that the salvation of our country is the hope 
of the world." — Howes. 

" Suddenly the clouds broke and the storm rolled off toward 
Franconia, to burst upon the plains of Saxony." — Schiller. 

"With peculiar satisfaction I add, that information has been 
received from an agent deputed on our part to Algiers, import- 
ing that the terms of a treaty with the Dey and regency of that 
country have been adjusted in such a manner as to authorize 
the expectation of a speedy peace, and the restoration of our un- 
fortunate fellow-citizens from a grievous captivity." 

Washington. 

" The Barbary States, after the decline of the Arabian power, 
seem to be enveloped in darkness, rendered more palpable by 
the increasing light among the Christian nations." — Sumner. 



PART III. 



Syntax treats of the construction of sentences 
by determining the relation, agreement, and ar- 
rangement of words. 

General Principles and Definitions to be noticed 
in Analysis and Construction. 

SENTENCES. 

I. A Sentence is an assemblage of words so arranged as to 
express an entire proposition. 

C Principal Parts 
II. A Sentence consists of < and 

^ Adjuncts. 

III. The Principal Parts of a Sentence are those words 
necessary to make the unqualified assertion. 

IV. The Adjuncts of a Sentence are the words used to 
modify or describe other words in the Sentence. 

it- m t> -d c a £ The Subject, 

V. The Principal Parts of a ben- > mi -d 

< The Predicate, 

tenceare I The Object. 

VI. The Subject of a Sentence is that concerning which 
something is asserted. 
VII. The Predicate is the word or words that assert some- 
thing of the Subject. 
VIII. The Object of a Sentence is that on which the act ex- 
pressed by the Predicate terminates. 

IX. The Subject of a Sentence may be 1 . B ' 

vrnr\ i?cix V \ A PHRASE, Or 

X. The Object of a Sentence may be i A g ENTEN c E 



112 



PART HI. SYNTAX — GENERAL PRINCIPLES. 



XI. A Word used as 
the Subjector Ob- 
ject of a Sentence 
may be 



A Noun, 

or 

A Pronoun. 



Common or 
Proper. 
Personal, 
Relative, 
Interrogative, 
_ Adjective. 

Masculine Gender, 
Feminine Gender, or 
Neuter Gender. 

First Person, 

Second Person, or 
Third Person. 
Singular Number, or 
Plural Number. 

The Subject of a Sentence is in the Nominative Case. 

The Object of a Sentence is in the Objective Case. 

Another Verb, 
A Participle, 
An Adjective, 
A Noun, 
A Pronoun, or 
A Preposition. 



XII. Nouns and Pronouns are of the < 

XIII. Nouns and Pronouns are of the < 

XIV. Nouns and Pronouns are of the 

XV. 
XVI. 

XVII. 



The Grammatical 
Predicate of a Sen-<j A Verb 
tence is 





o 



XVIII. 



A Verb 
in Predi- 
cation may 
be in the 



Indicative 
Mode, 



Potential 

Mode, 

Subjunctive 

. Mode, 
Imperative 

Mode. 



^Present Tense, 
Past Tense, 

I Future Tense, 
Present Tense. 

Past Tense, 

Present Tense, 
Past Tense. 



Definite, 

Indefinite, 

Prior. 

Indefinite, 

Prior. 

C Definite, 
I Indefinite, 
£ Prior. 



Present Tense. 



XIX. A Verb in Predication must agree ' 
with its Subject in. 



Person 
and 
Number. 



SYNTAX GENERAL PRINCIPLES. 



113 



C Primary 
XX. The Adjuncts of a Sentence are < or 

£ Secondary. 

XXI. Primary Adjuncts are attached to the Principal 
Parts of a Sentence. 

XXII. Secondary Adjuncts are attached to other Adjuncts. 
XXIII. Adjuncts may consist of 



Words, 
Phrases, or 
Sentences. 



XXIV. Words, Phrases, 
and Sentences used«< 
as Adjuncts are 



Adj.^ 



or 



Qualifying, 



Specifying. 



Super!, 
Compar., 

Posit., 
Dimin, 
Pure, 
Nuiner., 

Possess, 

Trans., 

Intrans. 



:. Verbal. 

Time, 
Place, 
» , Degree, 
Manner, 
Cause, 
etc., etc. 

C Intransitive or Transitive, 
XXV. A Sentence may be < Simple or Compound, 

( Principal or Auxiliary. 
XXVI. An Intransitive Sentence has no Object. 
XXVII. A Transitive Sentence has an Object. 
XXVIII. A Simple Sentence has all its Principal Parts 
Single. 
XXIX. A Compound Sentence has some of its Principal 

Parts Compound. 
XXX. A Principal Sentence asserts a Principal Proposi- 
tion. 
XXXI. An Auxiliary Sentence asserts a Dependent Pro- 
position. 
XXXII. Conjunctions* introduce Sentences, and connect 
Words and Phrases. 



114 PART III.— SYNTAX PHRASES. 

XXXIII. A Preposition shows a relation of its object to the 

word which its Phrase qualifies. 

XXXIV. An Exclamation has no dependent Construction. 

XXXV. A Word of Euphony is, in its office, chiefly rhe- 
torical. 

II. PHRASES. 

XXXVI. A Phrase is two or more words properly arranged, 
not constituting an entire proposition ; but per- 
forming a distinct etymological office. 

C Principal Parts 
XXXVII. A Phrase consists of < and 

( Adjuncts 

XXXVIII. The Principal Parts of a Phrase are those words 
necessary to its structure. 

XXXIX. The Adjuncts of a Phrase are words used to modify 
or describe other words. 

XL. The Principal Parts ( The Leading Word, 
of a Phrase are ( The Subsequent Word. 

XLI. The Leading Word of a Phrase, is the word used 
to introduce the Phrase — generally connecting its 
Subsequent to the word which the Phrase qualifies. 

XLII. The Subsequent Word of a Phrase, is the word 
which follows the Leading Word as its object — 
depending on it for sense. 

XLIIL The Adjuncts may con- $ A ^ edim (Words, 

sist of J ° r • i Phrases > or 

£ Adverbial { Sentences. 

yt tv a t> tt ™ •„ ^ Transitive or 

A.LIV. A Phrase is < T 

( Intransitive. 

XLV. A Transitive Phrase is one whose Subsequent 
(Infinitive Verb or Participle) asserts an action 
which terminates on an Object. 

XL VI. An Intransitive Phrase is one whose Subsequent 
is a Noun or Pronoun, or a Verb or Participle, 
having no Object. 



PHRASES CLASSIFICATION. 



115 



XL VII. A Phrase is, inform, < 



L. 



LI. 



LIL 



LIII. 



' Prepositional, 
Participial, 
Infinitive, or 
_ Independent. 
XL VIII. A Prepositional Phrase is one that is introduced 
by a Preposition — having a Noun, a Pronoun 
(Word, Phrase, or Sentence), or a Participle, for 
its object of relation. 
XLIX. A Participial Phrase is one that is introduced 
by a Participle — being followed by an Object of 
an action, or by an Adjunct. 

An Infinitive Phrase is one that is introduced by 
the preposition to — having a Verb in the Infinitive 
Mode as its Object of relation. 
An Independent Phrase is one that is introduced 
by a Noun or Pronoun — having a Participle de- 
pending on it. 

A Phrase is Compound, when it has two or more 
Leaders or Subsequents. 

A Phrase is Complex, when one of its Principal 
Parts is qualified by another Phrase. 

Remark. — Words combined into a Sentence, have a relation to each 
other — a relation which often determines their forms. The principal 
Modifications of words as treated in Part II. of this work, are those of 
form — and these forms vary according to their relation to other words. 
Thus, in speaking of Frederick, I may say, " he assisted James." Here 
" he " stands for the name of Frederick ; and that form of the Pronoun is 
used to denote that Frederick was the agent of the action — the Subject of 
the Verb. But if I say, " him James assisted," I make quite a different 
assertion, not because I speak of different persons or of a different act, but, 
because I use a different modification of the word " he." 

But the form does not always determine the office of words in a Sentence. 
I may say, Frederick assisted James, 

And, James assisted Frederick. 

Here, although 1 use the same words, and the same form of those words, 
I make two widely different assertions. The difference in the assertions 
in these examples, is caused by the change of position of the words. 
Hence, the laws of Agreement and Arrangement of words in the con- 
struction of Sentences. 

Rem. — As Diagrams are of great service in constructing sentences, by 
serving as tests of the grammatical correctness of a composition, they are 
inserted in Part III. It is hoped that the teacher will not fail to require 
the class to write sentences which shall contain words in every possible 
condition, and in every variety of modification. Young pupils should be 
required to place the sentences in Diagrams. 



1 16 PART III. SYNTAX SUBJECT. 



THE SUBJECT OF A SENTENCE. 

Rule 1. The Subject of a Sentence must be in 

the Nominative Case. 



(^ SUBJECT "V" — t *\ 

Obs. 1. — The Subject of a Sentence may be a Noun, Pronoun, 
Phrase, or Sentence. 

Examples — 1. A Noun Virtue secures happiness. 

2. A Pronoun . . u He plants his footsteps in the sea." 

3. A Phrase.. .. u To be able to read well, is a valuable ac- 

complishment." 

4. A Sentence . . That good men sometimes commit faults, can- 

not be denied. 

Obs. 2. — The subject of an imperative verb is commonly 
understood. 

Example — " [ ] Take each man's censure, but [ ] reserve thy judg- 
ment." 

Obs. 3. — It is often expressed. 

Example — " Go ye into all the world." 

Obs. 4. — It is sometimes accompanied by an explanatory word. 

Example — " Ye rapid floods, give way." [See " Independent Case."] 

POSITION OF THE NOMINATIVE. 

Note I. In position, the nominative commonly 
precedes the verb. 

Examples — Animals run. Resources are developed. 
Obs. 1. — In Interrogative Sentences, it is placed after the verb, 
when the verb constitutes a complete predicate. 
Example — u Heeds he not the bursting anguish?" 
Obs. 2. — When the predicate consists of two verbs, or a verb 
and participle, adjective, noun, &c, the Nominative is placed 
after the first word of the predicate. 

Examples — 7s he injured ? Is she kind? Is he a scholar? Must I leave 
thee? 

Obs. 3. — The Interrogatives who, which, and what, used as 
Subjects, precede their verbs. 

Examples — " Who will show us any good ? 

" What can compensate for loss of character," 
" Which shall be taken first?" 



SUBJECT — POSITION. 117 

Obs. 4. — The subject follows the predicate, or the first word 
of the predicate, in the declarative modes. 

1. When the conjunction if used to introduce a conditional 
or modifying sentence, is omitted. 

Example — " Dost thou not, Hassan, lay these dreams aside, 
I'll plunge thee headlong in the whelming tide." 

2. When the word there is used to introduce the Sentence. 
Example — There is a calm for those who weep. 

3. When the verb is in the Imperative Mode. 
Example — Turn ye, turn ye at my reproof. 

4. By the poets and public speakers, for rhetorical effect. 
Examples — " Loud peals the thunder." 

u Perish the groveling thought." 

Obs. 4. — When a Substantive Phrase or Sentence is the sub- 
ject of a Principal Sentence, it is commonly placed before the 
predicate. 

Examples — " To do good, is the duty of all men." 

That we differ in opinion, is not strange. 

Obs. 5. — The Nominative Phrase sometimes follows the pre- 
dicate. 

Example — " The sure way to be cheated is, to fancy ourselves more 

CUNNING THAN OTHERS." 

This position generally obtains, when the indefinite pronoun 
it is placed instead of the phrase. " It " precedes, and the phrase 
follows the verb. 

Example — It is the duty of all, to do good to others. 

Rem. — In parsing examples like these, the Phrase is to be regarded as 
explanatory of the Pronoun it — to define the indefinite word — and is, in its 
office, analogous to a word used to explain a preceding Noun. [See Inde- 
pendent Case, Obs. 1, p. 51.] 

Obs. 6. — When one word includes in its signification many 
others, expressed in the same connection, the general term is 
the proper subject of the verb ; and the included terms may be 
regarded as explanatory ; and, therefore, independent in cc 
struction. [See Independent Case, p. 51. J 

Example — -'-All sink before it — comfort, joy, and wealth.'' 

Some Teachers prefer to supply the ellipsis — which is not 
improper. 

Note II. — Unnecessary repetition of a subject 
should be avoided. 



118 PART III. SYNTAX SUBJECT. 

Obs. 1, — This principle is violated in the following example : 
" His teeth, they chatter, chatter still." 

Obs. 2.— But this practice is allowable, when necessary to a 
proper rhetorical effect. 

Examples — Our Fathers, where are they? And the Prophets, do they 
live for ever 1 

Rem. — The agent of an action expressed by an Infinitive Verb, may 
be in the Nominative or Objective Case. 

1. I purpose to go. 

2. I invited him to go. 

Rem. 2. — The agent of an action expressed by a Participle, may be in 
the Possessive or Objective Case. 

1. I heard of your going to Boston. 

2. The plowing of the wicked is sin. 

Exercises. 

§3^* Let the class make Sentences which shall be correct examples of 
the several Notes, Observations, and Remarks, under Rule 1. 

EXAMPLES FOR PARSING. 

" Friend after friend departs ; 

Who has not lost a friend 1 

There is no union here of hearts. 

That finds not here an end ; 

Were this frail world our final rest. 

Living or dying none were blest. 
# # # # # 

Thus star by star declines, 

Till all are passed away ; 
As morning high and higher shines, 

To pure and perfect day ; 

Nor sink those stars in empty night, 

But hide themselves in heaven's own light." 

Montgomery. 

FIRST MODEL. 

" Friend after friend departs." 



Prinrnnni Pnrt« 5 Friend Subject of " departs." } Simple Sentence, 

principal farts . . ^ Departs _ p red{cate f » friend." ] Intransitive. 

Adjunct After friend. Adjunct of " departs." 



EXERCISES 3N ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 119 

PARSING. 

Friend is a name Hence . . a Noun. 

" name of a class of persons Hence . . Common. 

[The gender is not indicated ; and, whenever it is not, no 
mention of the gender should be made.] 

" spoken of Hence . . Third Person. 

" denotes but one Hence . . Singular Number. 

" subject of departs Hence . . Nominative Case. 

After friend . . modifies " departs " — denoting 

time, or order of time Hence . . an Adverb. 

After expresses a relation of " de- 
parts " and " friend " Hence . . a Preposition. 

Friend is a name Hence . . a Noun. 

" name of a class Hence . . Common. 

" spoken of Hence . . Third Person. 

" denotes but one Hence . . Singular Number. 

" object of the i elation expressed 

by " after " Hence . . Objective Case. 

Departs expresses an action Hence . . a Verb. 

" action has no object Hence . . Intransitive. 

" simply declares Hence . . Indicative Mode. 

" denotes present time Hence . . Present Tense. 

predicate of "friend" ^^\^^^^, 

SECOND MODEL. 

" Who has not lost a friend." 

ANALYSIS. 

(Who Subject, i 

Principal Parts. . -J Has lost. .Predicate, > Hence, a Transitive Sentence. 
( Friend. . . . Object, ) Simple. 

. . ( Not Adjunct of " has lost." 

Adjuncts \ A Adjunct of « friend." 



Who is a Pronoun — Interrogative — Third Person — Singular Num- 
ber — Nominative Case to " has lost." 

"The subject of a Sentence must be in the Nominative Case." 

Has lost. .Is a Verb — Irregular [lose, lost, losing, lost] — Transitive — Ac- 
tive Voice — Indicative Mode — Past Tense Indefinite — Third 
Person — Singular Number, to agree with its Subject " who." 

Not is an Adverb— Negative — Modifies " has lost." 

A is an Adjective — Specifying — Specifies " friend." 



120 PART III. SYNTAX PREDICATES VERBS. 

Friend . . .is a Noun — Common— Third Person— Singular Number — Ob- 
jective Case to " has lost." 

ADDITIONAL EXAMPLES, 

"Rewardiog and punishing actions by any other rule, would 
appear much harder to be accounted for by minds formed as he 
has formed ours." — Bp. Butler. 

u What time he took orders, doth not appear." — Life of Butler. 

" That every day has its pains and sorrows, is universally 
experienced." 

Rem* — For examples of False Syntax, see Appendix, Note G. 

PREDICATES. 

Prill. Predicates describe their Subjects by as- 
serting* facts concerning them. 

( ^ subTecT^ ^edic ate^) 

Obs. — Every Predicate must consist of a verb. — Robert studies. 

And, in addition, it may have 

A second Verb . . . Robert does study. 

A Participle Robert is studying. 

An Adjective .... Robert is studious. 

A Noun Robert is a scholar. 

A Pronoun ...... It is 1. If I were you. 

A Preposition .... Its idle hopes are o'er. 

It may also consist of two verbs and one or more participles, 

&C. We MIGHT HAVE WALKED. We MIGHT HAVE BEEN LOVED. 

VERBS. 

Rule 2t A verb must agree with its subject in 
Number and Person. 

Rem. — This rule requires that the Jorm of a verb be determined by its 
Subject. Strictly speaking, Verbs have no Number and Person. The 
term is used to denote a variation in the form of a verb to correspond with 
the Number and Person of its Subject. Thus, 

In the Singular number no suffix is used for the First Person ; as, I walk. 

Est or st is added for the Second Person, solemn style ; as, Thou walked. 

S is added for the Third Person ; as, John walks. 

In the Plural Number, verbs are not varied to denote the Person of their 
Subjects. 



PREDICATES VERBS. 121 

NUMBER, 

Note I. A verb must have a Singular form, 

1. When it has one Subject in the Singular Number. 

Examples — li Earth keeps me here awhile." 

" Man needs but little here below." 

2. When it has two or more Singular Subjects taken sepa- 
rately. 

Examples — Philip or Edward has gone to the post-office. 
M The saint, the father, and the husband prays." 

3. When its Subject is a single Phrase or Sentence. 

Examples — To do good is the duty of all. 

His being a scholar entitles him to respect. 

That all men are created equal is a self-evident truth. 

4. When it is a Collective Noun conveying the idea of unity. 

Examples — " Congress has adjourned." 

" The regiment has been disbanded." 

Note II. A verb must have a Plural form, 

1 . When it has one Subject in the Plural Number, or indi- 
cating plurality. 

Examples — They live — Birds fly. 

T/ie committee are divided in opinion. 

2. When it has two or more Subjects, taken collectively. 

Examples — Lucy and Jane have returned. 

Justice and Mercy sweetly have embraced. 
To give good gifis, and to be benevolent, are often different 
things. 

Obs. — The logical Subject of a Sentence is sometimes the Ob- 
ject of a Phrase used to qualify the grammatical Subject. 
Then, 

1. When the Object of the Phrase is Plural in form, and 
indicates that the parts of which the number is composed are 
taken severally, the verb should be Plural. 

Example — Apart of the students have left. 

Here '*' students'' — the name of many taken severally — is the 
logical Subject of " have left," and requires the verb to be Plu- 
ral, although "' part," the grammatical subject, is Singular. 

2. When the Object of the Phrase is Singular, or the name of 

6 



122 PART III. SYNTAX VERBS. 

an aggregate number taken collectively, the verb should be Sin- 
gular. 

Example — Two-thirds of my hair has fallen off. 

Here ' ; hair" — the name of many taken collectively — is the 
logical Subject of " has fallen," and requires the verb to be Sin- 
gular, although " two-thirds," the grammatical Subject, is Plural. 

PERSON. 

Note. III. Two or more Subjects taken separate- 
ly and differing* in Person, should have separate 
verbs, when the verb is varied to denote the Person 
of its Subject. 

Example — You are in error, or Jam. 

Obs. — But, when the verb is not varied to denote the person, 
it need not be repeated. 

Examples — You or I must go. The doctors or you are in error. 

Note IV. When the Subject of a verb differs 
in Person or Number (or both) from a Noun or Pro- 
noun in predication, the verb should agree with its 
Subject rather than with the word in predication. 

Examples — " Thou art the man." " Who art thou?" 
u His meat was locusts and wild honey." 
" The wages of sin is death" 

MODE AND TENSE. 

Note V. That Mode and Tense of a verb should 
be used which will most clearly convey the sense 
intended. 

Obs. 1 . — A verb used to denote a conditional fact or a contin- 
gency, should have the Subjunctive or Potential form. 
Examples — " Were I Alexander , I would accept the terms." 
" So would I, were I Parmenio." 
If we would improve, we must study. 

Obs. 2. — But if the condition be assumed as unquestionable, 
the verb may be in the Indicative Mode. 

Examples — " If thou hadst known." 

If John has offended you, he will make due apology. 



VERBS— MODE. 123 

Obs. 3. — The variations for the Potential Mode are rather 
variations of form, than to indicate distinctions of tense — this 
mode being generally indifferent as to time. 

Example — " O would the scandal vanish with my life, 
Then happy were to me ensuing death." 

Obs. 4.— The Infinitive present generally indicates indefinite 
time — the finite verb on which it depends, commonly determines 
its Tense. 

Examples — " I went to see him" — present in form, but past in sense. 

u I shall go to see him " — present in form, but future in 
sense. 

Obs. 5. — But, generally, to indicate past time, the Past Infi- 
nitive is used, except when the Infinitive follows verbs denoting 
purpose, expectation, wish, fyc. 

Examples — We ought to have gone. 

I purposed, to write many days ago. 
I expected to meet him yesterday. 

Note VI. A verb should not be used for its par- 
ticiple in predication. 

Example — James ought not to have went. 
Corrected — James ought not to have gone. 

Note VII. A participle should not take the place 
of its verb. 

Example — 1 done that sum correctly. 
Corrected — I did that sum correctly. 

INFINITIVE. 

Rule. 3. A verb in the Infinitive Mode, is the 
object of the preposition to 5 expressed or under- 
stood. 

Obs. 1. — The Infinitive Verb partakes much of a Substantive 
character — generally expressing the name of an act. 



^ { We are prepared to act. 

examples— | We are prepared y^. ACTI0N . 



Obs. 2. — The Infinitive Verb is never used as a grammatical 
Predicate — but it is often the logical predicate of a Noun or Pro- 
noun in the Objective Case. 

Example — I requested him to go, 



124 PART III.— SYNTAX VERBS. 

Obs. 3. — An Infinitive Verb with its preposition is used as 
a Phrase, and may be construed as 
A Noun ..... To enjoy is to obey. 
An Adjective. . Henry has a desire to improve. 
An Adverb .... We love to study. 

Obs. 4. — The Infinitive is sometimes elegantly used for one 
of the other modes. 

Examp ( "If I am to settle this business." — Arthur. 

I I must settle this business. 
I " The hour had come, for him to go." — Abbott. 
\ The hour had come, when lie must go. 
" What is more necessary than for a people to preserve 
what they themselves have created." — Story. 

.... than that a people should preserve, &c. 

Obs. 5. — An Infinitive Phrase may be an Adjunct to 

1. A Noun " Isaac has a desire to improve." 

2. A Pronoun. . . . " Enough for me to know." 

3. An Adjective ..." Ready to depart on the morrow." 

4. A Verb " Students ought to improve the time " 

5. An Adverb " He is too wise to err, and loo good to be 

unkind." 

Obs. 6. — The Infinitive Verb often follows the words as and 
than. 

Examples — " An object so high as to be invisible." 

" He said nothing farther than to give an apology for his 
vote." 

Rem* — In the above and similar examples, as and than are to be re- 
garded as Prepositions, having for their objects the Infinitive Phrases 
following. In like manner it sometimes follows other Prepositions. 

Example— We are about to recite. 

Obs. 7. — The Infinitive Phrase, like other Phrases, is some- 
times independent in construction. 

Example — " And. to be plain with you, I think you the most unreasonable 
of the two." 

Obs. 8. — The Infinitive Mode of verbs following the verbs bid, 
but, dare, feel, hear, let, make, need, see, and sometimes behold, have, 
known, help, observe, preserve, and some others, do not require the 
preposition to. 
Examples — "I plunged in, and bade him follow." — Shakspeare. 
" Necessity commands me name myself." — Idem. 
He dares not do it. I let him go. 
Jane helped me work that problem. 
I cannot but suspect that she assisted Lucy too. 



VERBS PARTICIPLES. 125 

Obs. 9. — The Infinitive verb following these verbs, is often 
understood. 

Example — Some deemed him [ ] wondrous wise. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Rule 4. A Participle has the same construction 
as the " part of speech 7 ' for which it is used. 

I. Participles used as Nouns. 

Note I. A Participle used as a Noun may be, 
(1.) The Subject of a sentence. 

Examples — " The beginning of strife is as when one letteth out water." 
" The plowing of the wicked is sin." 

(2.) The Object of a verb. 

Example — " While you strive to bear being laughed at." — Young La- 
dies' Friend. 

(3.) The Object of a preposition. 

Examples — " In the beginning." 

" I return to your inviting me to your forests." — Pope. 
" Poverty turns our thoughts too much upon the supplying 
of our wants : Riches, upon enjoying our superfluities." 

Addison. 

Note II. A Participle used as a Noun, i. e., as 
the name of an action, may be followed by an Ob- 
ject when it is the leader of a participial Phrase. 

Examples — " They could not avoid giving offence'' 

" Its excesses may be restrained without destroying its ex- 
istence." 

Receiving goods, known to be stolen, is a criminal offence. 

" Taking a madman's sword to prevent his doing mischief, 
cannot be regarded as robbing him." 

We have succeeded in making a beginning. 

Obs. 1. — Whenever a Participle is the name of an act, being, 
or state, it is properly called a Verbal Noun. Retaining its 
verbal character, it may have a Subject. It differs from a verb, 
however, in allowing its Subject to be in the Possessive or Ob- 
jective cases. The Adjunct of a Participle is its logical Subject. 



126 PART III. SYNTAX — VERBS. 



EXAMPLES. 

1. Possessive. — We have heard of Ms going to the falls. 

In the event of William's gaining a fortune. 

2. Objective. — By the crowing of the cock we knew that morning was 

nigh. 

Obs. 2. — The definitive, the, should be placed before a Verbal 
Noun whose logical Subject is the Object of the preposition of. 
Example — The plowing of the wicked is sin. 

Obs. 3. — The definitive, the, should not be placed before a 
Verbal Noun whose logical Subject is in the Possessive case. 
Example — You object to my plowing the garden so early. 

II. Participles used as Adjectives. 

Note III. A Participle used as an Adjective, be- 
longs to Nouns and Pronouns which it describes ; 
and may be modified by Adverbs. 

EXAMPLE. 

Whose visages 
Do cream and mantle like a standing pond. 

Obs. — A Participle used to introduce a Participial Phrase 
performs an office more peculiar to itself than in any other con- 
dition. But even then it answers to the definition of some oth- 
er part of speech. 

EXAMPLE. 

" Suspecting the treachery of our guide, we made preparations 
for defending ourselves from any hostile attacks?' 1 

Here " Suspecting" and "defending" are Participles, each 
used to introduce a Participial Phrase ; but 

" For defending ourselves," limits 
the action expressed by " prepara- 
tions." Hence, an Adjective Phrase. 

"Defending" is the name of an 
act [object of the preposition " for]." 
Hence, a Verbal Noun. 



" Suspecting the treachery of our 
guide," shows a condition of" we." 
Hence, an Adjective Phrase. 

"Suspecting" describes "we," by 
expressing, incidentally, an act of 
" we." Hence, a Verbal Adjective. 

Suspicious of the treachery of our guides, we made preparations 
for defense. 

" Suspicious" describes " we," by 



expressing a condition or state of 
" we." Hence, an Adjective. 



" Defense" is a name, object of the 
preposition " for." Hence, a Noun. 



VERBS PARTICIPLES. 127 

III. Participles used as Adverbs. 

Note IV. A Participle used Adverbially belongs 
to Verbs, Adjectives, or Adverbs, which it modifies. 

Example — 'Tis strange! 'tis passing strange! 

Obs. — Participles are seldom used Adverbially without the 
termination ly. 
Example — " He spoke feelingly on that subject." 

IV. Participles used as Prepositions. 

Note V. A Participle used as a Preposition 
shows a relation of its object to the word which its 
phrase qualifies. 

Example — " He said nothing concerning his temporal affairs." 
Obs. — The young scholar often finds it difficult to determine 
whether a Participle is used as a Preposition or an Adjective. 
His difficulties on this subject will vanish when he recollects 
that — 

1 . A Participle used as a Preposition, does not relate to a Noun 
or Pronoun — it generally introduces an Adverbial Phrase. 

2. A Participle used as an Adjective, always relates to a Noun 
or Pronoun — it generally introduces an Adjective Phrase. 

V. Participles used in Predication with Verbs. 

Note VI. A Participle used in predication asserts 
an act, being*, or state ; and may be modified by 
Adverbs. 

Example — " We are anxiously expecting to hear from William." 

Obs. 1. — The Present (or First) Participle always ends in 
ing, and is limited to the Active Voice. 

Obs. 2. — The Past (or Second) Participle of Regular Verbs 
ends in d or ed, and is limited to the Passive Voice. 

Obs. 3. — The Compound (or Third) Participle is composed 
of the second Participle of a verb added to the word having — 
and is then Active ; or to the word being, or the two words hav- 
ing been — and is then Passive. Hence, 

Note VII. In the use of Participles in predica- 
tion, the proper modification should be used. 



128 PART III.— SYNTAX — VERBS. 

(1.) When an action is to be predicated of the 
Subject, i. e.> when the Subject performs the 
act, the Active Participle should be used. 

Example — Henry is reciting his lesson. 

(2.) When the Subject is to be represented as 
receiving- the action, the Passive Participle 
should be used. 

Example — Henry's lesson is eeing recited. 

Note VIII. Participles should not be used as the 
Object of a verb when an Infinitive verb would be 
more elegant. 

Examples — He refused complying with the regulations. 
He refused to comply with the regulations. 

VOICE. 

Note IX. That form of a verb should be used 
which will correctly and fully express the fact in- 
tended. 

1. When the person or thing which is the Subject of a sen- 
tence, is the agent of an act expressed by the predicate, the 
verb should be in the Active Voice. 

Example — Columbus was a native of Genoa. Historians represent him 
as having been a man of science. He discovered America. 

2. When the person or thing which is the Subject of a sen- 
tence, is passive, i. e., suffers or receives the result of the action, 
the verb should be in the Passive Voice. 

Example — America is called the new world. It was not known to the 
ancients. 

Obs. 1. — Generally either voice can be used to express the 
same fact. 

examples. 

Active Morse invented the Telegraph. 

Passive The Telegraph was invented by Morse. 

When the Passive Voice is used, the name of the agent be- 
comes the object of an Adverbial Phrase. 

Obs. 2. — The Passive Voice is sometimes used instead of the 
Active, without any other change in the construction. 



VERBS MODES. 129 

Examples — C " Tm afraid I have caught the consumption too." 
i I fear I have caught the consumption too. 
J" Now that you are gone, who will take your place." 
( Now that you have gone, who will take your place. 

Ois. 3. — By an idiom of respectable authority, the object of a 
qualifying Phrase sometimes becomes the subject of a passive 
verb, while the preposition is retained in predication. 

C They took possession of the city. 
Example — ■? The city was taken possession ofhy them. 
( Possession of the city was taken by them. 

Obs. 4. — Action is sometimes predicated of a passive subject. 

EXAMPLES. 

You are mistaken. 

for You mistake. 

11 The house is building" 

for The house is being built. 

which means.. The house is be[come]ing built, i.e., people are at work 

upon it ; but the house does not act. 

Rem. — This is one of the instances in which Authority is against Phi- 
losophy. For an act cannot properly be predicated of a passive agent. 
Many good writers properly reject this idiom. 

11 Mansfield's prophecy is being realized." — Michelefs Luther. 

Obs. 5. — Parts of the predicate of a sentence may be omitted 
by ellipsis. 

1. The leading word. 

"If [ ] heard aright, 
It is the knell of my departed hours." 

2. The second word. 

14 They may [ ] and should return to allegiance." 

3. The whole predicate. 

" While [ ] there we visited the Asylum." 

General Observations on the Syntax of the Verb. 

COMPLEX SENTENCES— MODES. 

Obs. 1. — In the use of Complex Sentences, the Principal 
Sentence must be expressed by verbs in the Indicative, Impera- 
tive, or Potential Modes. 

Examples— 1. Indicative. ..." They kneeled before they fought." 

2. Imperative. .." Come when the heart beats high and 

warm." 

3. Potential We may learn if we study. 

6* 



18) PART III. SYNTAX—VERBS. 

jmressed hv verbs 



Obs. 2. — The Auxiliary Sentence may be expressed by verbs 
in the Indicative, Potential, and Subjunctive Modes. 
Examples — 1. Indicative They kneeled before they fought. 

2. Potential I would go if I could. 

3. Subjunctive. .If I were a student, I should be ambitious 

to improve. 

INDICATIVE MODE. 

Obs. 3.— We use the Indicative Mode in Declarative and 
Interrogative Sentences. 

Examples — " God created the heaven and the earth." 
Have you been to the Post Office 1 

Obs. 4. — The Indicative form is also used in conditional Sen- 
tences, when we represent the conditional as true or granted. 
Examples — " If he has declared" " If the reality is proved." — Porteus. 

POTENTIAL MODE. 

Obs. 5. — This Mode properly indicates an opinion, or a pur- 
pose — a mental or moral emotion — or physical power. 

Examples — I may go — You can go — He should, go — I will go. 

What readiest way would bring me to that place 1 

Obs. 6. — It is also used in Interrogative Sentences. 

Example — " And can I leave thee 1" 

" For what can war but endless war still breed'?" 

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 

Obs. 7. — This Mode is used when we express a conditional 
circumstance hypothetically. 

Examples — " Were I Alexander, 1 would accept the terms." 
So would I, were I Parmenio. 

Rem* — In this use of the Subjunctive Past Tense, a fact contrary to the 
assertion is always implied. Thus, " were I Alexander," implies that I 
am not Alexander. 

IMPERATIVE MODE. 

Obs. 8. — When we command or entreat, we use the Impera- 
tive Mode. 

Examples — " Awake I arise 1 or be forever fallen." 
"Come to the bridal chamber, Death." 

THE TENSES OF THE SEVERAL MODES. 

Rem. — Perhaps no part of the Science of the English language occa- 
sions more perplexity to the student, than that which relates to the use of 
the Tenses— for 



. 



VERBS MODE TENSE. 131 

1. The variations of verbs to indicate distinctions of time, do 
not correspond to the natural divisions of time. 

There are — as stated in Part I. — but three distinctions of time. 

Past. Present. Future. 

Yet we have forms of the Verb, to denote six distinctions. 

Present, Past, ) Indefinite, i Future, \ Indefinite, 

( Prior. ) t *? 

We also have different forms for the same Tense. 
Simple form, \ Vmguam _ J I turn, 



w. 



,} *"«". \\ am ring. 



Compound form 

Simple form, ) p Depinite J I turned, 

Compound form, $ ' \ I was turning. 

Simple form, ) p Indfpinite ] T have turned, 

Compound form, J ^ AST 1NDEPINITE > \ i have been turning. 

Simple form, \ p p J I had turned, 

Compound form, J rRI0R r AST ' \ I had been turning. 

Simple form, ) Future J [ sha11 turn ' 

Compound form, ) (I shall be turning. 

Simple form, \ Prior Future J f sha11 have turned, 

Compound form, ) rRI0R * UTURE ' { I shall have been turning. 

With all these variations of the Verb to denote distinctions of time, we 
still have nothing which will designate time with absolute precision. 
Adjuncts (Words, Phrases, or Sentences) are necessary — and these we 
call Adverbs of time. 

2. The form of a Verb appropriated to one Tense, is not 
always used to denote the time of its tense. Thus, would is the 
Past Tense of will. 

Example — John would not study — consequently, he had no lesson. 

But the same form is also used to denote present time. 

Example — John would study better than he does, if he felt the importance 
of an education as he should. 

This form may also refer to a future act. 

Example — John will accompany you — 1 would go myself if 1 had not 
another appointment at that hour. 

Rem. — Examples might be multiplied — showing the great confusion 
and instability of the Tenses of English Verbs. 

In the exercise of composition, special rules can be of little service to 
the student. The following observations on the uses of the tenses of the 
Indicative Mode, it may be proper to mention. They are, however, 
of a general character, and subject to exceptions, which may be best 
learned by a careful attention to the practice of the best writers and speak- 
ers 



132 PART III. SYNTAX VERBS. 

Obs. 1. — In denoting present time, the simple form of the 
Present Tense should be used when the time is indefinite. 
Example — Virtue is commendable — Education elevates man. 

Obs. 2. — When the act, being, or state, expressed by the verb, 
is to be represented as definitely present or continuing, the 
compound form of the Present Tense should be used. 

Examples — I am writing — Daniel's predictions are now being fulfilled. 

Obs. 3. — In expressing a past transaction which is finished, 
and which is definite in the mind of the speaker, we use the sim- 
ple form of the Past Tense Definite. 

Example — I went to Newark, to attend the Convention. 

Obs. 4. — In expressing a past event, definite and continuous 
(in a present and continuous state at a past time), we use the 
compound form of the Past Tense Definite. 

Example — I was writing William a letter as he entered the room. 

Obs. 5. — Generally, the compound form of a tense denotes a 
present state of an event (by virtue of the office of the Present 
Participle in predication), but the variety of time when the event 
was, is, or shall be, is indicated by the auxiliary verb be. 

examples. 
I am reading. 

a & u P u u ' > Hence, el present act at the present time, 

I was reading. 
jteadbg denotes present time, J Hence - atl actpresent at apast time . 

I have been reading. 
Reading denote, present time, ) Hencej an ^ ^^ fi a ^ time _ 

Haye u present " \ but in a P erio(i reaching to thepresent. 

I had been reading. 
Reading denotes present time, ) Hence, an act present at a past time 
Been " past " > teminating at a period before another 

Had " " " ) past time. 

I shall be reading. 

Reading denotes present time, ) Un „ . . . A . , . , 

g e ^ u r a H ' f Hence, an actpresent, at a time which 

Shall " future « ) wil1 he P resent at & future time. 

I shall have been reading. 

Been u nast " ' ' Hence, an act present at a time past, 

Have « present « > when , some f nture time wiU te 

Shall « tuture J P resenL 



EXERCISES PARTICIPLES. 133 



Exercises. 



" ScaliJig yonder peak, 
I saw an eagle wheeling near its browV 




ANALYSIS, 

Principal Parts. .\ Saw.'.'.:'.'. ".".'.".Preilcate, } ^ m P le f ?«»leiice, 

} Eagle Object. ! .f Tnuw *f 

( Scaling yonder peak — Adjunct of " I." 

Adjuncts J An, I Adiuncts of « ea^le " 

( Wheeling near its brow. J Adjuncts 01 ea & ie. 



Scaling is [a Participle from the verb 

scale] used here to describe "I." Hence . . an Adjective. 
" describes by expressing inci- 
dentally an act of " I " Hence . . Verbal Adjective, 

" action terminates an object. . .Hence. .Transitive. 

Yonder describes peak Hence . . an Adjective. 

" describes by simply pointing 

out . . Hence . . Specifying. 

Peak is a name Hence . . a Noun. 

" name of a class of things Hence . . Common. 

" spoken of Hence . . Third Person. 

11 denotes but one Hence . . Singular Number. 

" object of the action expressed 

by u scaling n Hence . . Objective Case. 

I . e . . , is used for a name Hence . . a Pronoun. 

u denotes by Us form the Person. . Hence . . Personal. 

u denotes the speaker Hence . . First Person. 

" denotes but one Hence . . Singular Number. 

" subject of " saw " Hence . . Nominative Case. 

Rule — "The Subject of a Sentence must be in the Nomina- 
tive Case." 



134 PART III. SYNTAX- — EXERCISES. 

Saw asserts an act Hence . . a Verb. 

" an act which passes to an ob- 
ject Hence . . Transitive. 

" simply declares Hence . . Indicative Mode. 

" denotes time past (and, in the 

mind of the speaker) definite. . . Hence . . Past Tense Def. 

" Predicate of f' I " [which is of 

the First Person, Singular 4 First Person, 

Number] Hence ( Singular Number. 

Rule — "A verb must agree with its Subject in Person and 
Number" 

An describes " eagle" Hence, .an Adjective. 

" simply specifies Hence . . Specifying. 

Eagle is a name Hence . . a Noun. 

" name of a class of animals. . . . Hence . . Common. 

" spoken of Hence . . Third Person. 

" denotes but one Hence . . Singular Number. 

" object of action expressed by 

" saw " Hence . . Objective Case. 

Wheeling is [a Participle from the verb 

wheel] used here to describe 

" eagle" Hence . . an Adjective. 

" describes by expressing, inci- 

dentally, an act of " eagle". . . Hence . . a Verbal Adjective 
act does not pass to an object . . Hence . . Intransitive. 

Near its brow . . modifies " wheeling ;" denot- 
ing place Hence . . an Adverb. 

Near shows a relation of" wheeling" 

and " brow" Hence . . a Preposition. 

Its describes " brow" Hence . . an Adjective. 

" describes by simply limiting 

" brow" Hence . . Specifying. 

' ; limits by indicating a relation 

of possession Hence . . Possessive. 

Brow is a name Hence, .a Noun. 

" name of a class Hence . . Common. 

" spoken of Hence . . Third Person. 

" denotes but one Hence . . Singular Number. 

" object of relation expressed by 

" near" Hence . . Objective Case. 

" Leaning against a tree, thoughts crowding thoughts, 
I looked far out upon the ominous plain." 



VERBS 1 KFINIT1 VE- — PAR SING. 



He makelh the storm a calm. 



Q HE X M A K E T H X S T QRM ) 



X, CALM. ) 

ANALYSIS. 



(He...... Subject, ) 

Principal Parts.. 1 Makeih. .Predicate, > Simple Sentence — Transitive. 
( Storm.... Object. ) 



' The Adjunct of " storm." 

Adjuncts <? To become a calm — Adjunct of '; maketh." 

A Adjunct of " calm." 



PARSED. 

He is used for a Noun Hence . . a Pronoun. 

M its form determines its 

Person Hence, Personal. 

" spoken of Hence, Third Person. 

" denotes but one Hence, Singular Number. 

" subject of maketh Hence, Nominative Case. 

Rule — " The Subject of a Sentence must be in the Nom- 
inative Case." 

Maketh asserts an act Hence, a Verb. 

" act passes to an object Hence, Transitive. 

* act done by its subject Hence, Active Voice. 

" simply declares Hence, Indicative Mode. 

" denotes a present act Hence, Present Tense. 

" Predicate of " he," which 

is of the Third Person ( Third Person 

Singular Number Hence, ) Sing'r Numb. 

rule — " A verb must agree vnth its Subject in Person 
and Number. " 

The describes " storm" Hence, an Adjective. 

11 describes by simply speci- 
fying Hence, Specifying. 

Storm is a name Hence, a Noun. 

11 name of a class of things. . Hence, Common. 

" spoken of Hence, Third Person. 

" denotes but one Hence, Singular Numb. 

" object of action expressed 

by " maketh" Hence, Objective Case. 

Rule — " The object of an action or relation must be in 
the Objective Case." 



136 PART III. SYNTAX EXERCISES. 

[To become] a calm. . modifies " maketh" — limit- 
ing the act as to its result. . . Hence, an Adverb. 

A describes " calm" Hence, an Adjective. 

14 describes by simply speci- 
fying Hence, Specifying. 

Calm is a name Hence, a Noun. 

" name of a class of things . . Hence, Common. 

" spoken of Hence, Third Person. 

" denotes but one Hence, Singular Numb. 

" used in predication with 

" become" Hence, Indep'nd't Case. 

Rule— Note. — " A noun or pronoun used in predication 
with a verb is in the Independent Case." 

Rem. — The above is the correct grammatical construction of the sen- 
tence, and it is correctly parsed. But without the Adjunct phrase " to 
become a calm," the word " maketh" could not properly have " storm" as 
its object. " Storm" is the Object of the modified Predicate " maketh 
[causeth to become] a calm." 

EXAMPLES FOR PARSING. 

" Some deemed him [ ] wondrous wise." 

I do not consider him to blame. 

I do not consider him to [be worthy of] blame. 

The plan proved [ ] ineffectual. 

" Man's inhumanity to man makes countless millions [ ] mourn." 

Teach them [to yield] obedience to the laws. 

" I found company [ ] an interruption, rather than a relief." 

" One of his sovereigns thought royalty so impaired in his presence that 
he conspired to remove him, in order to be relieved from his superiority." 

Robertson's Character of Pitt. 

" Scolding has long been considered ungenteel." — Y. L. Friend. 

" A scrupulous attention to politeness is not only useful to prevent hurt- 
ing the feelings of others, but it is the best shield to our own delicacy." 

Young Ladies' Friend. 

"In the matter of giving and receiving presents, much wisdom is re- 
quired." 

" Much time is frittered away in receiving and paying unmeaning visits, 
in slopping to talk when you ought to be doing something useful. — Young 
Ladies' Friend. 

" A task is rendered doubly burdensome by being done at an incon- 
venient time." — Mrs. Farrar. 

" Much learning shows how little mortals know." — Young. 

'• Some of the crew had fastened themselves to this spar, to prevent their 
being, ic 'ashed off by the waves." — Irving. 

" Possibly, your neighbor, by being less scrupulous than yourself, may 
invent a more expeditious way of acquiring a fortune. — Hawes. 



QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW. 137 

" Summer's dim cloud that, slowly rising, holds 
The sweeping tempest in its rising folds, 
Though o'er the ridges of its thundering breast 
The King of Terrors lifts his lightning crest, 
Pleased we behold, when those dark folds we find 
Fringed with the golden light that glows behind." — Picrpemt. 
" Ye once were justly famed for bringing forth 
Undoubted scholarship and genuine worth." 
"For this surrendering the manuscripts, I received the warm thanks of 
the trustees for the family." — Wilson's Burns, p. 21. 

"It is impossible to form a just estimate of any individual character, 
without having divested ourselves of all those passions or prejudices which 
may tend to pervert our judgment." 

" Had a stranger, at this time, gone into the province, ignorant of all 
that had happened in the short interval, and observing the wide and gen- 
eral devastation, and all the horrors of the scene ; of plains unclothed and 
brown ; of vegetables burnt up and extinguished ; of villages depopulated 
and in ruin ; of temples unroofed and perishing ; of reservoirs broken 
down and dry ; he would naturally inquire, what war has thus laid waste 
the fertile fields of this once beautiful and opulent country'?" 

" No youth could rein the horse, hurl the javelin, chase the lion, or de- 
light the social circle like this son." — Todd. 

"For a time he stormed about the Moorish halls, and vapored about 
the bastions, and looked down fire and sword upon the palace of the 
C aptain-Gener al . ' ' — Irving. 

QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW. 

|:y Let the pupil in answering these questions, give a reason for his 
answer, by repeating the appropriate Rule, Note, or Observation. 

Earth keeps me here awhile. 
Why is "keeps" put in the form of the Singular Number? — Third 
Person 1 

Philip or Edward has gone to the Post Office. 
Why is " has gone " put in the Singular Number 1 

His being a scholar, entitles him to respect, 
Why is " entitles " put in the Singular Number 1 

Congress has adjourned. 
Why is " has adjourned " put in the Singular Number 1 

They live — Birds fly. 
Why are " live" and " fly," not written lives and Hies ? 

The committee are divided in opinion. 
Why may we not say — is divided 1 

Jane and Lucy have returned. 
Why may we not say— -has returned 1 



138 PART III. SYNTAX QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW. 

A part of the books have been misprinted. 
Why may we not say — has been misprinted 1 

The wages of sin is death. 
Why may we not say — are death 1 

I purposed to write many days ago. 
Why may we not say — I purposed to have written? 

We ought to have gone there yesterday. 
Why may we not say — ought to go there yesterday 1 
Why may we not say — ought to have went? 

I did that business according to orders. 
Why may we not say — I done that business 1 

I came yesterday and am to return to-day. 
What equivalent assertion may be made by a change of Mode 1 

I saw him to rise and heard him to speak. 
What words in this Sentence are unnecessary and improper ^ 

Much learning doth make thee to be mad. 
What words in this Sentence are unnecessary 1 
The reasoning of a savage is not presumed to be philosophical. 
What is the Subject of this sentence 1 

I doubted his hoMng been a soldier. 
What is the object of " doubted V 1 

The Superintendent exhibited his method of parsing. 
What is the object of" of?" 

We could not avoid giving offence. 
What is the object of " avoid V 
What is the object of " giving'?" 

We have heard of his going to the falls. 
Why may we not say — of him going to the falls 7 

William was censured for joining the society. 
Why may we not say — for joining of the society'? 
Why may we not say — for the joining the society 1 
Why may we not say — for the joining of the society 1 

Henry is reciting his lesson. 
Why may we not say — Henry is recited his lesson 7 
Why may we not say — Henry's lesson is reciting? 

That is an example worthy to be followed. 
Why may we not say worthy to follow 1 

§gp The Teacher will extend this exercise at his pleasure, by giving 
examples from a reading lesson, or by calling the attention of the class to 
some of the most common errors in the use of Predicates. 



NOUNS AND PRONOUNS OBJECT. 139 

OBJECT. 

Rule 5. The Object of an action or relation must 
b$ in the Objective case. 



( x x ) 

Examples — Virtue secures happiness. 
We are loriting letters. 
" Wishing them much joy, we departed." 
The book is on the table. 
Edward loves to study mathematics. 

" Scaling yonder peak, 
I saw an eagle wheeling near its brow." — Knowles. 

Rem. — A few exceptions to this rule are noticed at page 104. 

Obs. 1 . Action is expressed by Verbs or by Participles, Rela- 
tion is expressed by Prepositions. [See the above examples.] 

Obs. 2. — The Object of an action or relation may be a Noun, 
a Pronoun, a Phrase, or a Sentence. 

1. A Noun "I gave the book to Charles." 

2. A Pronoun . . " He received it from me." 

3. A Phrase. ..." Avoid wounding the feelings of others " 

4. A Sentence. . " He said, I go, sir." 

Obs. 3. — An Auxiliary Sentence is often the logical Object 
of a Verb. [See Diagram 24.] 

Examples — " And show mankind that truth has yet a friend" — Pope. 
" As foplings grin to show their teeth are white." 

Obs. 4. — Sometimes a Principal Sentence is thrown in be- 
tween the parts of an Objective Sentence. 

Examples — 1. " Whose charms, me thought, could never fade." 

2. " This explanation, / doubt not, will satisfy him." 

3. " But confidence, he added, is a plant of slow growth." 

4. " Lucy's economical education, as you call it, sir, has 

been going on all this time." 

Rem. — The scholar often finds it difficult to decide as to the proper con- 
struction of some Sentences thus placed. 

Sentences of this class change by imperceptible gradations from a Prin- 
cipal Sentence to an unimportant Auxiliary, so that no rule can be given 
which will apply in all cases. Generally, however, it may be decided 
that when a Sentence, thus thrown in, is in its nature, as well as in its 
form, Principal (as Example 3 above), it should be so construed. But 
when it is obviously equivalent to an Adverb (as Example 2), it should 
be parsed as an Adjunct. " This explanation will doubtless satisfy him" 



140 PART III.-— SYNTAX NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 

Obs. 5. — In position, the Objective case is commonly after the 
word of which it is the Object. 
Examples — Dennis assists James 

We love to study Grammar. 

By the poets, it is often placed before its Verb or Preposition. 
Examples — " Him, from my childhood, I have known.'' 1 
" He wanders earth around." 
" New ills that latter stage aivait." — Southey. 
"And all the air a solemn stillness holds." — Gray. 

Obs. 6. — A Relative Pronoun in the Objective case precedes 
the Verb of which it is the Object. 
Example — " The evil which he feared has come upon him." 

Obs. 7. — Where a Relative is the Object of a Phrase it pre- 
cedes the Verb which the Phrase qualifies. 
Example — I know in whom I have believed. 

Rem. — "In whom," modifies "have believed" — and relates to person, 
understood. 

Note I. A Verb may have two or more Objects, 
(1.) When they are connected by Conjunctions 
expressed or understood. 

Example — " God created the heaven and the earth." 

(2.) When they are the names of distinct titles 
or attributes of the same person or thing-. 

Example — By this dispensation we have lost a neighbor, a friend, a 
brother. 

(3.) When one object is the name of a person or 
thing-, and the other a title, acquired by the action 
of the verb. 

Example — They named him John. 



< r 



Note II. When a verb in the Active Voice is 
followed by two Objects, it retains the latter in the 
Passive. 

Example — He shall be named John. 



NOUNS AND PRONOUNS— OBJECT. 141 

Note III. But two or more Nouns or Pronouns, 
not in a similar construction, cannot be objects of 
the same verb. 

Obs. I. — Custom has rendered the omission of Prepositions 
proper after certain verbs ; but in parsing their Objects, the el- 
lipsis should be supplied. 

Example — >" They carried the child home." 

Rem* — " Child" is the name of a young being, and, in this connection, 
is the proper object of "carried." But "home" is a name applied to a 
habitation, a building, and "they" probably did not "carry" that. They 
carried the child to some place — and that place was its home. 

" He told me his history" 

He related to me his history. 

I asked him his opinion. 

" Our dear Joachim has asked me for my opinion." — Michdelh Luther. 

He gave me a book. 

" To whom 1 gave the ring." 

Obs. 2. — The verbs make, esteem, regard, consider, elect, bid, 
dare, feel, hear, see, and some others, are often followed by an 
Infinitive Phrase, having its Preposition (and sometimes its Sub- 
sequent) understood. 

Examples — " Lorenzo, these are thoughts that make* man man." — Young. 

these are thoughts that make man [to be] man. 

Teach them obedience to the laws. 

Teach them [to yield obedience] to the laws. 

Rem, — In examples like these the second Noun or Pronoun is the Ob- 
ject of the Verb understood or used in predication with it. Thus " man ' 
is used in predication with " to be" or " to become" understood j and 
" obedience" is the object of" yield." 
Examples — Intemperance makes a man [to become] a fool. 
He maketh the storm [ ] a calm. 
The people elected Harrison [to be, or for] President. 

Note IV. Intransitive Verbs have no object. 

Examples — 1 sit — Thou art — He sleeps. 

Obs. 1. — But some Yerbs commonly used Intransitively, 
sometimes have objects of their own signification. 

Examples — I have fought a good fight. 
We ran a race. 

" Luther * * * * blew a blast." 
" [They] shout their raptures to the cloudless skies." 



* The word malre is generally thus used, when it signifies " to cause, to 
be," " to cause to become.' 7 



142 PART III. SYNTAX NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 

Note V. A few Verbs may be used Transitively 
or Intransitively. 

Examples — The sun set in the west. 

He set the inkstand on the table. 

Cool blows the wind. 

The wind blows the dust. 

" Transitive Verbs do not admit of a Preposition after 

them." — Bullion's Grammar, p. 91. 
We do not admit spectators. 
Sonorous metal blowing martial sounds. 

POSSESSIVE CASE. 

Rule* 6» A Noun or Pronoun in the Possessive 
Case, is used Adjectively. 

Examples — Webster 1 s Dictionary — Our neighbor. 
Obs. 1. — The Possessive Case is a term applied by gramma- 
rians, with reference to the form of Nouns and Pronouns. Nouns 
and Pronouns in this Case do not always indicate possession ; 
and they are also in the Nominative, Objective, and Independent 
Cases. 

Examples — The pedler deals in boy's caps and children's shoes. 

" And they both beat alike — only, mine was the quickest." 
" He is a friend of mine. 71 and lives next door to Smith's. 
" He related an anecdote of Dr. Franklin's." 
" Thine is the kingdom. " 

Obs. 2. — The sign of the Possessive Case is not always an- 
nexed to the name of the possessor. 

1. It may be transferred to an attribute following the name 
of the possessor. 

Examples — " The Pope of Rome's legate. 

Whether it be owing to the Author of nature's acting upon 
us every moment. — Bp. Butler. 

2. When two or more Possessives, immediately following each 
other, are alike applicable to the same word, it is attached only 
to the last. 

Examples— George, James, and William's father. 
A. S. Barnes & Co.'s publications. " 

Obs. 3. — But the sign of the Possessive should be repeated, 

1. When one Possessive is used to specify another. 
Example — " Gould's Adams 7 Latin Grammar." 

2. When the Possessives describe different things. 
Example — " Heroes' and Heroines' shouts confusedly rise." 



NOUNS AND PRONOUNS EXERCISES. 143 

Obs. 4. — A Noun or Pronoun in the Possessive Case, is gen- 
erally equivalent to an Adjective Phrase. 

EXAMPLES. 

The people's will The will of the people. 

Webster's Dictionary A Dictionary written by Webster. 

A father's love The love of a father. 

Boy's caps Caps suitable for boys. 

" He heard the king's command. . The command of the king. 
And saw that writing's truth " The truth of that writing. 

Rem. — In the construction of Sentences, judgment and taste should 
decide as to the use of a Phrase, or a Possessive Adjective — no rule can 
be given which may be of general application. 

Obs. 5. — Nouns and Pronouns in the Possessive Case often 
retain their substantive character, and may be qualified by other 
Adjectives. 

Example — M And saw that writing's truth." " That" specifies " writ- 
ing." He saw the truth of that writing . 

This observation is also applicable to other Adjectives, de- 
rived from Nouns. 

U A cast iron hinge." "Cast" qualifies "iron" — and "iron" is an 
Adjective. 

Obs. 6. — A word in the Possessive form, is often used to 
specify a Phrase. 

Examples — " Upon Mr. Talbot's being made Lord Chancelor." 

Life of Butler. 

" From our being born into the present world " 

Butler's Analogy. 

Obs. 7. — In constructions like the above, the Possessive sign 
should not be omitted. 

Correct construction All presumption of death's being the destruction of 

living beings, must go upon the supposition that 
they are compounded. — Bp. Butler. 
Incorrect construction.. . " Nor is there so much as any appearance of our 
limbs being endued with a power of moving" tf*c. 

Bp. Butler. 
" A fair wind is the cause of a vessel sailing." 

Graham's Synonymcs. 

Rem. — In the last example, the author intended to say that wind is the 
cause of an act — an act expressed by the word " sailing." 

But he makes himself say that wind is the cause of a thing — a thing 
named by the word " vessel." 
Corrected Wind is the cause of a vessel's sailing. 



144 PART III.— SYNTAX-— NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 

Position of the Possessive. 

Obs. 1.— When the Possessive is used Adjectively, it is 
placed before the Noun or Pronoun which it specifies. 

Examples — The widow's mite— The culprit's confession. 
Our father and our mother. 

Obs. 2. — Like other Specifying Adjectives, it precedes Qua- 
lifying Adjectives belonging to the same Noun or Pronoun. 

Examples — - u The brook's bright wave." " The wind's low sigh." 
Our devoted father, and our affectionate mother. 

INDEPENDENT CASE. 

Rule 7# A Noun or Pronoun not dependent on 
any other word in construction, is in the Independ- 
ent Case. 

Rem. — As the grammatical subject of a Sentence is limited to the Nom- 
inative Case of Nouns and Pronouns, so the Nominative Case is properly 
limited to the Subject of a Sentence. Hence the term " Nominative Case 
Independent" is inappropriate. 

Note I. The name of a person or thing* ad- 
dressed is in the Independent Case. 

Examples — H Friends, Romans, Countrymen." 

" Come, gentle spring— ethereal mildness, come." 

Obs, 1. — In the last example the word thou, understood, is 
the proper subject of " come." The words u spring" and " mild- 
ness," are addressed, and are independent in construction. The 
example is also applicable to Note II., because they explain who 
are indicated by the words " thou," u thou," understood. 

Note II. A Noun or Pronoun used to explain a 
preceding* Noun or Pronoun is in the Independent 

Case. 

Examples — Paul, the Apostle, wrote to Timothy. 

"Up springs the lark, shrill- voiced and shrewd, 
The messenger of morn." 

Obs. 1.— This note applies also to Phrases and Sentences. 

Examples — It is our duty to study. 

" It is possible that we have misjudged." 
" I shall be dignified with this high honor — to bear my 
lady's train. 



NOUNS AND PRONOUNS INDEPENDENT CASE. 145 

Obs. 2. — An Independent Noun or Pronoun is properly a 
logical Adjunct when it is used to describe or limit another 
word. 

Examples — Paul the Apostle. Peter the Great. 

Rem. — '• Apostle" describes " Paul," by limiting the application of that 
name to a particular individual. 

Note III. A Noun or Pronoun used as the leader 
of an independent phrase, is in the Independent 
Case. 

Examples — The hour having arrived, we commenced the exercises. 
" Thus talking, hand in hand alonethey passed 
On to their blissful bower." 

Note IV. A Noun or Pronoun used in predica- 
tion with a verb, is in the Independent Case. 

Examples — " Thou art a scholar." It is /. " God is love." 
He maketh the storm a calm. 

Obs. — A Noun or Pronoun used in predication, may have the 
form of the Nominative or Objective. 

Examples — " I thought it to be him; but it was not him" 
" It was not me that you saw." 

Rem. — This idiom is established by good authority — ancient and mod- 
ern — and grammarians cannot well alter the custom. 

" Nescire quid accident antequam natus es, est semper esse puenm." 

" Not to know what happened before you was born, is always to be a 
boy." 

Here, " puerum" (boy) has the form of the Accusative Case (objective), 
and cannot be the Nominative. 

Note V. A Noun or Pronoun used for Euphony> 
is in the Independent Case. 

Example — " The moon herself is lost in heaven." 
Obs. — In this note are properly included Nouns and Pro- 
nouns, repeated for the sake of emphasis, 
" This, this is thinking free," 

Note VI. A Noun or Pronoun denoting* the sub- 
ject of remark — the title of a book — used in address, 
or in exclamation, &c, is in the Independent Case. 

Examples — " Our Fathers 1 where are they 1 and the Prophets ! do they 
live forever 1" — " Wright's Orthography" — " Davies' Mathematics" — " J.Q. 
Adams, divine v, Mass." 

7 



146 



PART III.— -SYNTAX— EXERCISES. 



Exercises. 
FIRST MODEL. 

"Lend me your so?ig, ye Nightingales V{ 



c 



Y E ~ X LE]ND X S0N G ») 

L Y ° u R J 



( NIGHTINGALES 3 



ME 



D 



ANALYSIS. 



Principal Parts 



' (Ye... 

.. J Lend. 

( Song . 



.Subject, 
. Predicate 
. Object 



ate, > 



ransitive Sentence, 
Simple. 



Adjuncts . 



Lend 



' [To] me Adjunct of " lend." 

' Your . Adjunct of " song." 

' Nightingales. . Adjunct of " ye." 



PARSED. 

. expresses an act Hence . . a Verb. 

act passes to an object Hence . . Transitive. 

act, not actually done, but com- 
manded Hence . . Imperative Mode. 

denotes time present Hence . . Present Tense. 

Predicate of « ye " Hence \ Second Person ' 



agree 



\ Plural Number. 
with its Subject 



m 



[To] me. 



Me. 



Your. 



Rule — " A Verb must 

Person and Number. 11 

.Phrase, modifies " lend," limit- 
ing the act by denoting direc- 
tion Hence . . an Adverb. 

. is used for a name Hence . . a Pronoun. 

denotes, by its form, the person, Hence . . Personal. 

denotes the speaker Hence . . First Person. 

denotes but one Hence . . Singular Number. 

object of to understood Hence. . Objective Case. 

Rule — " The Object of an action or relation must be 
in the Objective Case." 

. .limits " song " Hence . . an Adjective. 

limits by specifying Hence . . Specifying. 

specifies by denoting the source 
or cause [it is put in the Pos- 
sessive form] Hence. . Possessive. 

Rule — a A Noun or Pronoun in the Possessive Case 
is used Adjectively." 



NOUNS AND PRONOUNS EXERCISES. 147 

Song is a name Hence . . a Noun. 

" name of a class. Hence . . Common. 

* spoken of. Hence . . Third Person. 

" denotes but one Hence . . Singular Number. 

" Object of the action expressed 

by lend Hence . . Objective Case. 

Rule — "The Object of an action or relation must be 

in the Objective Case." 
Ye is used ibr a name Hence . . a Pronoun. 

its form denotes its person Hence . . Personal. 

" spoken to Hence . . Second Person. 

" denotes more than one Hence . . Plural Number. 

Subject of " lend " Hence . . Nominative Case. 

Rule — "The Subject of a Sentence must be in the 

Nominative Case" 

Nightingales. . is a name Hence . . a Noun. 

" name of a class Hence . . Common. 

" spoken to Hence . . Second Person. 

" denotes more than one Hence . . Plural Number. 

■ not dependent on any other 

word (but used incidentally 

to explain who are meant by 

" ye ") Hence . . Independent Case. 

Rule — U A Noun or Pronoun used to explain a pre- 
ceding Noun or Pronoun,is in the Independent Case." 

SECOND MODEL. 
" Our Fathers I where a,re they ?" 

ANALYSIS. 

Prinrirml Parts i The 3 r Subject, I Intransitive Sentence, 

Principal Farts . . j Are Predicate, J Simple. 

C Our Adjunct of " Fathers." 

Adjuncts 1 Fathers Logical Adjunct of " they. 5 ' 

( Where Adjunct of " are." 

Our is an Adjective — Specifying — Possessive — Specifies " Fathers." 

Fathers.. is a Noun- — Common — Masculine — Third Person-— Plural 
Number— Independent Case — a logical Adjunct of " they." 

Rule — Note — "A Noun or Pronoun denoting the subject 
of remark^ is in the Independent Case." 
Where,. .Modifies " are"— hence, an Adverb— of place— Interrogative. 



148 PART III. — -SYNTAX— NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 

Are asserts being— hence, a Verb— Intransitive — Indicative Mode - 

Present Tense — Third Person—Plural Number— -corresponds 
with " they." 

Rule — " A Verb must agree with its Subject in Person 
and Number." 
They. . . .is used for a name ; hence, a Pronoun — Personal — Third Per- 
son — Plural Number— Nominative Case to " are." 
Rule — " The Subject of a Sentence must be in the Nomi- 
native Case" 

ADDITIONAL EXAMPLES. 

" They tell me of the Egyptian asp, 
The bite of which is death— 
The victim yielding with a gasp, 
His hot and hurried breath." 
" Ye crags and peaks ! I'm with you once again." 
11 Thus talking, band in hand, alone they passed 
On to their blissful bower." — Milton. 
" And hoary peaks that proudly prop 
The skies, thy dwellings are." — Percival. 
u And echo conversations dull and dry, 
Embellished with He said, and so said /." — Cowper. 
" He evinced the elder brother's title to the estate, from the contradictory 
evidence of the witnesses, and the false reasoning of the pleaders ; un- 
raveled all the sophistry to the very bottom, and gained a complete vic- 
tory in favor of truth and justice." — Anon. 

aUESTIONS FOR REVIEW. 

CASES. 

What is the definition of the word case, as used in grammar 1 

To what class of words does the term apply 1 

How many cases of Nouns and Pronouns 1 Name them. 

NOMINATIVE. 

When must a Noun or Pronoun be in the Nominative Case 1 

The Subject of a Sentence may consist of what 1 

Is the Subject of a Sentence always expressed 1 

The Subjects of what Verbs are commonly understood 1 

What is the natural position of the Subject of a Sentence 1 

What its position in Interrogative Sentences 1 

The position of who, which, and what, used as Interfogatives 1 

In Declaratives Modes, when may the Subject follow the Predicate 1 

A Phrase or Sentence used as the Subject of a Sentence, is placed wherel 



NOUNS AND TR-ONOUNS AGREEMENT. 149 

When may a Nominative Phrase follow its Predicate 1 

May the subject be repeated? — Wheal 

The logical Subjects of Infinitive Verbs and Participles may be in 

what Cases ? 

OBJECTIVE. 

When must a Noun or Pronoun be in the Objective Case 1 

What words assert action 1 What express relation 1 

What may constitute the Object of action or relation? 

How are we to decide when a sentence is Principal or Auxiliary 1 

What is the natural position of the Object? 

When may a verb have two Objects ? 

Are Prepositions sometimes omitted ? 

What Verbs are often followed by Objective and Independent Cases ? 

Do all Verbs have objects? 

POSSESSIVE. 

What is the office of a Noun or Pronoun in the Possessive Case ? 

Do these words always indicate possession? 

When is the sign of the Possessive not to be annexed ? 

A Possessive is generally equivalent to what ? 

May they be qualified by other Adjectives ? 

What should be the position of the Possessive ? 

INDEPENDENT. 

When is a Noun or Pronoun in the Independent Case ? 

What may be the form of words in this case? 

Name the various conditions of words in the Independent Case. 

PRONOUN. 

Rule 8# A Pronoun must agree with its Ante- 
cedent in Gender, Person, and Number. 

Obs. 1. — The Antecedent of a Pronoun may be a Word, 
Phrase, or Sentence. 

EXAMPLES. 

1. A Word " James has injured himself ; he has studied too much." 

2. A Phrase. . .." William's abandoning a good situation in hopes of a 

better, was never approved by me. It has been the 
prime cause of all his troubles." 
" It is good to be zealously affected in a good thing." 

3. A Sentence. ."I am glad that Charles has secured a liberal education — ■ 

it is what few poor boys have the perseverance to ac- 
complish." 



150 PART III. SYNTAX PRONOUNS PERSONAL. 

Obs. 2. — A Pronoun may consist of a Word, Phrase, or Sen- 
tence. 

EXAMPLES. 

1 . A Word J have treated him respectfully. 

2. A Phrase " His being a scholar entitles him to respect." 

3. A Sentence . . That good men sometimes commit faults, cannot be denied. 

" Much learning shows 
Hmo little mortals know" — Young. 

Note I. A Pronoun should have a Singular form, 
(1.) When it represents one Singular Antecedent. 

Example — Henry was quite well when I last saw him. 

(2.) When it represents two or more Singular 
Antecedents taken separately. 

Example — " The oil of peppermint, or any other volatile oil, dropped on 
paper will soon evaporate ; no trace of it will be left." 

Note II. A Pronoun should have a Plural form, 
(1.) When it has one Antecedent indicating* Plu- 
rality. 

Example — Few men are as wise as they might be. 

(2.) When it has two or more Antecedents taken 
collectively. 

Example — Homer and Henry always accomplish what they undertake. 
PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

Note III. The form of a Personal Pronoun, 
should indicate its Person and Number. 

Obs. 1. — The Pronouns i" and we denote the person or per- 
sons speaking or writing — " I " Singular — " we n Plural. But, 

Obs. 2. — "We" is used in the Singular by Editors and Em- 
perors. 

Examples — u We, Nicholas L, Emperor of all the Russias." 

u We shall present ourself as candidate at the next election." 

Obs. 3. — Thou is used in Solemn Style, to denote a person 
addressed. 

Example — li Thou didst weave this verdant roof." 
Obs. 4. — You was formerly limited to the Second Person 



PRONOUNS PERSONAL RELATIVE. 1 5 1 

Plural ; but is now used in the Second Person Singular and 
Plural. Its verb is commonly in the Plural form. 

Examples — " You are come too late." 

You have accomplished your object. 

Obs. 5. — But it has sometimes a Singular form. 

Examples — " On that happy day when yon was given to the world." 

Dod's Mas. 
" "When you was here comforting me. — Pope. 
" Why was you glad." — BoswelVs Life of Johnson. 

Obs. 6. — The Pronoun " it 11 often has an Indefinite or unde- 
termined Antecedent ; and may then represent any Gender. 
Person, or Number. 

Examples — " It snows." " It rains." 
" It was my father. 
* It was the students. 

A pleasant thing it is, to behold the sun. 
" If ever there was a ' people's man ' in the true sense, it 
was Dr. Chalmers.'' 1 — B. B. Edwards, 

Note IV. Pronouns of different Persons used 
in the same connection, should have their appro- 
priate position. 

Obs. 1. — The Second Person is used first — the Third next, 
and the First last. 

Example — You and James and J have been invited. 

Obs. 2. — But when a fault is confessed, this order is some- 
times reversed. 
Example — "/and my people have sinned." 

Note V. The Pronoun "them" should not be 
used Adjectively. 

Incorrect Bring me them books. 

Correct Bring me those books. 

RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

Obs. 1. — A Relative Pronoun always performs a double office, 
and is used, 

1. Substantively. 
Example — He who studies, will improve. 

" Who" relates to "he," and is the Subject of studies — hence, a Sub- 
stantive. 



152 PART III. SYNTAX PRONOUNS, 

2. Conjunctively — introducing an Adjective Sentence. 

Example — He who studies, will improve. 

" Who studies," is a Sentence used to describe "he." 

" Who" introduces the Sentence — hence, it is used Conjunctively. 

Obs. 2. — Who and whom are applied to man, and to other 
intelligent beings ; which, to things ; that, to persons or things. 

Examples — " He that attends to his interior self 

That has a heart and keeps it, has a mind 
That hungers, and supplies it, and who seeks 
A social [ ], [and seeks] not a dissipated life, 
Has business." 
" Too low they build, who build beneath the stars." 
" He whom sea-severed realms obey." 
The books which I had lost have been returned. 

" where is the patience now 

That you so oft have boasted to retain." — Lear, III., 6. 

Obs. 3. — But the name of a person taken as a name merely, or 
as a title, may be represented by the Relative which. 

Example — Shylock — -which is but another name for selfishness. 

Obs. 4. — Which was formerly applied to intelligent beings. 

Example — " Our Father, which art in Heaven." 

Obs. 5. — When the Relative "what" is used substantively, it 
bears a part in the structure of two sentences at the same time. 
It is always equivalent to "that which," or "the things which" 
The Antecedent part may be the Subject (a) or Object (b) of 
a Principal Sentence, the Object (c) of a Phrase in that Sen- 
tence, or used in Predication (d). The Consequent or Relative 
part introduces an Auxiliary Sentence, which qualifies the An- 
tecedent, and may be the Subject (e) or Object (g) of that 
Sentence, the Object of a Phrase (h), or used in Predication 
with a Verb (i). 



u_j> "What reason weaves, by passion is undone." 

Pope. 

3 u Deduct what is but vanity." — Idem, 

" Each was favored with what he most delighted in." 

" It is not what I supposed it to be." 



PRONOUNS RELATIVE. 1 53 

Obs. 6. — What is sometimes a Simple Relative. 
Example — " And u-hat love can do, that dares love attempt." — Romeo. 
Obs 7. — Whoever, whosoever, whatever, whatsoever, and who 
(used for whoever), have a construction similar to what. 

Examples — " Whatever purifies, fortifies also the heart." 
" Who lives to Nature, rarely can be poor, 
Who lives to Fancy, never can be rich." 

Obs. 8. — What, whatever, and whatsoever, are often used Ad- 
jectively. 

Examples — " What book have you." " Whatever object is most dear." 
" Whatsoever things are honest." 

Obs. 9. — That is sometimes improperly used for the Relative 
what. 

Example — "Take thai is thine." 

Obs. 10. — What is sometimes substituted for an Adverbial 
Phrase. 
Example — " What [in what respect] shall it profit a man." 
Obs. 11. — What is sometimes used as an Exclamation. 
Example — " What I Is thy servant a dog V* 

Obs. 12. — The two words, but what, are sometimes improperly 
used for the Conjunction that. 

Examples — " I did not doubt but what you would come." 
Corrected — I did not doubt that you would come. 

Obs. 13. — The Relatives than and as have Adjectives, or 
Adjective Pronouns, for their Antecedents. 

As, when a Relative Pronoun, has for its Antecedent the 
word " such " — used Adjectively, or as an Adjective Pronoun. 

Than follows more, or some other Adjective, in the Compara- 
tive Degree. 

EXAMPLES. 

" Nestled at his root 
Is Beauty, such as blooms not in the glare 
Of the broad sun." — Bryant. 
" We request such of you as think we overlaud the ode, to point out one 
word in it that would be better away." — Wilson's Burns. 

" He has less discretion than he was famed for having." 
" There is more owing her than is paid." — All's Well, 1, 3. 
Rem. — Let it be remembered that than and as are Substantives only 
when they constitute Subjects or Objects of Sentences. Most Teachers 
would regard those words in the examples above as thus used, but a rigid 
analysis of these sentences would require the ellipses to be supplied — then 
the words as and than would perform the office of Prepositions. 
Beauty such as [that which] blooms not, &c. 
Less discretion than [that which] he was famed for having. 

7* 



154 PART III.- — SYNTAX— PRONOUNS. 

POSITION. 

Note IV. The Position of Relative Pronouns 
should be such as most clearly to indicate their 
Antecedents. 

Obs. 1. — When a Relative is the Subject or Object of an 
Auxiliary Sentence, it should be placed next its Antecedent. 

EXAMPLES. 

" Can all that optics teach, unfold 
Thy form to please me so." 
" The grave, that never spoke before 
Hath found, at length, a tongue to chide." 

Rem. — To this rule there are exceptions. 

11 they love least that let men know their love." — Shakspeare. 

Obs. 2. — When the Relative is the Object of a Phrase, it 
comes between its Antecedent and the Auxiliary Sentence with 
which that phrase is construed. 

Example — We prize that most for which we labor most." 

Rem. — " For which " modifies " labor " — " which " relates to " that." 

Obs. 3. — The Relative — whether the Subject or Object of a 
Sentence, or the Object of a Phrase — can rarely be omitted 
without weakening the force of the expression. 

Examples — "For is there aught in sleep [ ] can charm the wise?" 
" The time may come [ ] you need not fly." 
"It is a question [ ] I cannot answer." 
" History is all the light we have in many cases, and we 
receive from it a great part of the useful truths we have." 

1NTERROGATIVES. 

Note V. Interrogative Pronouns are construed- 
like Personal Pronouns. 

Examples — 1. As the Subject of a Sentence — Who has the lesson 7 

2. As the Object of a Sentence — Whom seek ye? 

3. As the Object of a Phrase— For what do we labor? 

Obs. 1. — The word which answers a question has a construc- 
tion similar to that of the word which asks it. 
Examples — Whose book have you % Mary's. 

How long was you going 1 Three days. 
Where did you see him 1 In Rochester. 
Whence came they ? From Ireland. 

Rem. — " Mary's" specifies "book" — [during] "three days," modifies 



PRONOUNS ADJECTIVE. 15.5 

<c was gone" — " in Rochester," modifies " did see" — " from Ireland," mod- 
ifies " came." 

Obs. 2. — The Interrogative what, followed by the Conjunc- 
tions though, if, and some others, commonly belongs to a Princi- 
pal Sentence understood, and on which the following sentence 
depends for sense. 

Examples — " What if the foot aspired to be the head V 

What [would be the consequence] if the foot, &c. 

" What though Destruction sweep these lovely plains." 

What [occasion have we to despair?] though Destruction. 

ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. 

Rule 9. Adjective Pronouns are substituted for 
the Nouns which they qualify. 

Note I. When used as Subjects, each, either, 
neither, this, that, and all other Adjective Pronouns 
indicating* unity, require their verbs to be in the 
Singular Number. 

Examples — " Each believes his own." 
Either is sufficient. 

Note II. These, those, many, others, several, and 
other Adjective Pronouns indicating* plurality, re- 
quire their verbs to be in the Plural. 

Examples — " These are the things which defile." 
" Those were halcyon days." 

Note III. Any, all, like, some, none, more, and 
such, may have verbs in the Singular or Plural, ac- 
cording* as they indicate unity or plurality. 

Examples — " None but the upright in heart are capable of being true 
friends."— Y. L. Friend. 
if None has arrived." 

" All are but parts of one stupendous whole." 
" What if the field be lost 1 All is not lost." 
" The like were never seen before." " Like produces like." 
" Objects of importance must be portrayed by objects of 
importance; such as have grace, by things graceful." 
"Nestled at its root 
Is Beauty ; such as blooms not in the glare 
Of the broad sun." 



156 PART III. SYNTAX PRONOUNS. 

Obs. 1. — Qualifying and gome Specifying Adjectives receive 
the definitive u the " before them, on becoming Adjective Pro- 
nouns. They may be qualified by Adjectives or Adverbs, accord- 
ing as the thing or the quality is to be qualified. 

Examples — " The good alone are great." 

" The professedly good are not always really so." 

" The much good done by him will not soon be forgotten." 

" Professedly" modifies the quality— -hence, is an Adverb. 

" Much" limits the things done — hence, is an Adjective. 

Obs. 2. — In the analysis of a Sentence, each other, one an- 
other, and similar distributives, are properly parsed as single 
words. 

But in strict construction, the parts perform different offices. 

Examples — They assisted each other. 

They assisted each [assisted] the other. 

Obs. 3. — When two things are mentioned in contrast, and 
severally referred to by Adjective Pronouns — this and these, 
refer to the latter — that and those, to the former. 

EXAMPLES. 

" Here living tea-pots stand, one arm held out, 
One bent j the handle this, and that the spout." — Pope. 

"Farewell, my friends; farewell, my foes ; 
My peace with these, my love with those" — Bums. 

Exercises. 
" He that getteih tvisdom loveth his own soul" 



c 
c 



C He Subject of " loveth." " 

Principal Parts . . 1 Loveth. . Predicate of ° he." 

( Soul Object of " loveth." Complex Sentence. 

Adjuncts <J ~ ' 

I owa. : : '. : : : : $ Ad i uncts ° f ; ■ souL " j 

. ■•• a , ^hf Subject of" getteth" ) Auxi] Si , 

Auxiliary Sentence. <* Getteth . . .Predicate of" that." > transitive 
( Wisdom . . Object of " getteth." ) 



PRONOUNS EXERCISES. \j7 

PARSED. 

He is used for a name Hence, a Pronoun. 

its farm denotes its Person Hence, Personal. 

has the form of the Masculine Hence, Masculine Gender 

spoken of Hence, Third Person. 

denotes but one Hence, Singular Number. 

Subject of " loveth" Hence, Nominative Case. 

Rule — u The Subject of a Sentence must be in the Nom- 
inative Case" 

That is used for a name Hence, a Pronoun. 

" introduces a sentence which qualifies 

its Antecedent Hence, Relative. 

C Masculine Gen., 
" relates to "he" as its Antecedent. . . Hence, 1 Third Person, 

( Singular Numb. 

Rule — " A pronoun must agree with its Antecedent in 
Gender, Person, and Number, 

" Subject of " getteth" Hence, Nominative Case. 

Rule — u The Subject of a Sentence must be in the Nom- 
inative Case.'''' 
Getteth . . . .expresses an action Hence, a Verb. 

" act passes to an object Hence, Transitive. 

11 act done by its Subject Hence, Active Voice. 

" simply declares Hence, Indicative Mode. 

a denotes time present Hence, Present Tense. 

a PrpfliVpfp nf" that " FTptitp 5 Third Person, 

.rreaicate ot mat tience, j Singular Num> 

Rule — " A Verb must agree with its Subject in Person 
and Number." 

Wisdom . . is a name Hence, a Noun. 

" name of a quality Hence, Abstract. 

spoken of. Hence, Third Person. 

M denotes but one Hence, Singular Number. 

" object of " getteth " Hence, Objective Case. 

Rule — u The Object of an action or relation must be in 
the Objective Case." 

Loveth . . . expresses an action Hence, a Verb. 

" act passes to an object Hence, Transitive. 

" simply declares Hence, Indicative Mode. 

" denotes a present act Hence, Present Tense. 

Predicate of « that - Hence, { ItgSTm. 



158 PART III. SYNTAX- — PRONOUNS. 

Rule — " A Verb must agree with its Subject in Person 
and Number. 11 

His describes " soul " Hence, an Adjective. 

" describes by specifying Hence, Specifying. 

" specifies by denoting possession Hence, Possessive. 

Own describes " soul" Hence, an Adjective. 

" describes by specifying Hence, Specifying. 

" specifies by denoting possession Hence, Possessive. 

Soul is a name Hence, a Noun. 

" denotes one of a class Hence, Common. 

" spoken of . . . ♦ Hence, Third Person. 

" denotes but one Hence, Singular Numb. 

" Object of " loveth" Hence, Objective Case. 

Rule — " The object of an action or relation must be in 
the Objective Case 11 

EXAMPLES. 

The man who was present can give the particulars. 
The person whom we met appeared very much alarmed. 
I saw the wretch that did it. 
We saw the man whom you described. 

" Hesperus that led 
The starry host rode brightest." — Milton. 
"Mem'ry and Forecast just returns engage — 
That pointing back to youth, this on to age." 
"There is something in their hearts which passes speech." — Story. 
" Behind the sea-girt rock, the star 
That led him on from crown to crown 
Has sunk." — Pierpont. 

" The mountain cloud 
That night hangs round him, and the breath 
Of morning scatters, is the shroud 
That wraps the conqueror's clay in death." — Pierpont. 

" Mount the horse 
Which I have chosen for thee." — Coleridge. 
" Few be they who will stand out faithful to thee." — Idem. 
"For cold and stiifand still are they, who wrought 

Thy walls annoy." — Macauley. 
" Ishmael's wandering race, that rode 
On camels o'er the spicy tract, that lay 
From Persia to the Red Sea coast." — Pollok. 
" The king granted the Jews which were in every city to gather them- 
selves together and to stand for their life, to destroy, to slay, and to cause 
to perish all the power of the people and province that would assault 
them"— Bible. 

" " We have more than heart could wish." 
" My punishment is greater than I can bear." 



QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW. 159 



GIUESTIONS FOR REVIEW. 

What is a Pronoun 7 

What is the Antecedent of a Pronoun 1 

The Antecedent may consist of what 7 

The Pronoun may consist of what? 

Why are Pronouns varied in form 1 

When should a Pronoun have a Singular form? 

When should a Pronoun have a Plural form ? 

What is a Personal Pronoun 1 

In what style of Composition should thou be used % 

In what, you ? You is used in what Number ? 

The word it is used for what purposes ! 

What are the proper positions of the various Pronouns used in the same 

connection 1 
What common error in the use of the Pronoun them ? 

How many offices does a Relative Pronoun perform ? 

What are they? Give examples. 

The proper use of Who ? Whom? Which? That? 

What is peculiar in the use of the word Wliat? 

The Antecedent part may be used in what offices 1 

The Consequent part may be used in what offices % 

Illustrate by examples. 

In what other offices is the word What used ? 

Are than and as ever used as Relatives ? 

For what are those words substituted when thus used? 

What should be the position of Relative Pronouns? 

How are Interrogative Pronouns construed ? 

When do Adjectives become Adjective Pronouns ? 

ADJUNCTS. 

Prill. — Adjuncts belong* to the words which they 
modify or describe. 

Obs. 1. — Adjuncts are Adjectives or Adverbs, and may con- 
sist of Words, Phrases, or Sentences. 

Examples — 1. A Word — We were walking homeward. 

2. A Phrase — We were walking toivards home. 

3. A Sentence — " Let me stand here till thou remember it." 

Romeo. 

Obs. 2.— Adjuncts may belong to Words, Phrases, or Sen- 
tences. 
Examples — 1. Words— Honorable actions ultimately secure the greatest 
good. 

2. Phrases — He went almost around the world. 

3. Sentences — " Not as the conqueror comes, 

They, the true hearted, came." 






160 PART III. SYNTAX— ADJECTIVES. 



ADJECTIVES. 



Rule 10. Adjectives belong* to Nouns and Pro- 
nouns which they describe. 

Obs. 1. — It should be remembered that any word whose most 
important office is to specify, qualify, or otherwise describe a 
Noun or Pronoun, is therefore an Adjective. See Def. 9. A 
word which is sometimes or generally used as some other " part 
of speech," may, in certain connections, be used adjectively, and 
when thus used it is an Adjective.* 
Examples— -An iron fence. Working oxen. 

Rem. — Every Adjective having its substantive understood, becomes 
pronominal. [See Adjective Pronouns.] 

Obs. 2. — An Adjective may consist of a 

D Word — The recitation hour has arrived. 



) Phrase — The hour/br recitation has arrived. 

3 Sentence — The hour in which we recite has 
arrived. 



POSITION OF THE ADJECTIVE. 

Obs. 3. — An Adjective Word is commonly placed before its 
Noun, and after its Pronoun — an Adjective Phrase or Sen- 
tence, after its Noun or Pronoun. 

Examples — An influejitial man. 
A man of influence. 
A man who possesses influence. 




* Certain words are, by some Grammarians, called " Adjectives used 
as. Adverbs." But if the etymology of a word in a sentence is de- 
termined by its office in that Sentence — and there is no other proper cri- 
terion, it cannot be an Adjective when it is used as an Adverb. Some 
words are frequently so placed as to be somewhat ambiguous in their 
office, as 

" Here sleeps he now alone.'' 1 

Does " alone," in this connection, modify the verb " sleeps," or does it 
describe the Pronoun " hel " If the former, it is an Adverb — if the latter, 
it is an Adjective. 

If, in the opinion of the Student, it has an influence on both those 
words, then he is to decide whether it more fully describes the condition 
of "he," than modifies the action of " sleeps " — and parse it accordingly. 



ADJECTIVES NUMEIt ALS. I C J 

Obs. 4. — But when an Adjective Word is limited or modified 
by a Phrase, it is commonly placed after its Noun. 

Examples — " Seest thou a man diligent in his business." 
'• Truth, crushed to earth will rise again. 7 ' 

Obs. 5. — When the same word is qualified by two or more 
Adjectives, the one denoting the most definite quality should 
be placed next it — and when one Adjective specifies, and the 
other qualifies, the qualifying Adjective is placed next the 
Noun. 

Examples — An indubious young man. A large sweet apple. 
" A noble, good old man." 
" Sound the loud timbrel o'er Egypt's dark sea." 

Common errors .... A new pair of shoes. 
Corrected A pair of new shoes. 

Obs. 6. — An Adjective used in predication, commonly fol- 
lows the Verb. 

Examples — " He grew old." 

" The eyes of the sleepers waxed deadly and chill." 

NUMERAL ADJECTIVES. 

Note I. Adjectives that imply number, should 
agree in number with their Nouns. 

Rem* — Among the Adjectives implying unity, are the following : 

A Abook. This This book. 

One One book. That That book. 

Obs. 1. — But a Noun having two or more Adjectives differing 
in number, may agree in number with the one placed next it. 
Example — " Full many a gem of purest ray serene." 

Obs. 2. — One Numeral Adjective may qualify another Nu- 
meral. 

Examples — One hundred dollars. Four score years. 

A hundred horses. Two dozen oranges. 

Note II. The Noun should correspond in num- 
ber with the Adjectives. 

Examples — A two feet ruler. A ten feet pole. 

Obs. — A few technical and figurative words are used, allowing 
a Singular Noun with a Plural Adjective. 
Examples — A hundred head of cattle. Fifty sail of the line. 



162 PART III. SYNTAX ADJECTIVES. 



COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 

Note III. The Comparative Degree applies to 
two thing's or sets of thing's. The Superlative to 
more than two. 

Obs. 1.— This rule is sometimes violated by good writers. 
Example — The largest boat of the two was cut loose." — Cooper. 

Obs. 2. — Comparative and Superlative Adjectives require 
different constructions. 

1. The Comparative Degree requires the former term to be 
excluded from the latter. 

Example — Iron is more valuable than all other metals. 

Rem. — In this example, " Iron " is put as one term of comparison, and 
" all other metals " as the other term — two things are compared. Hence, 
the Comparative form. 

2. The Superlative Degree requires the former term to be 
included in the latter. 

Example — Iron is the most valuable of all the metals. 

Rem. — Here "all the metals " are taken severally. " Iron " is taken 
from the list, and put in comparison with the many others — more than 
two things are compared. Hence, the use of the Superlative form. 

Obs. 3. — Adjectives whose significations do not admit of com- 
parison, should not have the Comparative or Superlative form. 
Examples — John's hoop is much more circular than mine. 
Corrected — John's hoop is much more nearly circular than mine. 

Obs. 4. — Double Comparatives and Superlatives are improper. 

Example — In the calmest and most stillest night. 

Obs. 5. — But lesser is often used by good writers. 
Example — " The lesser co-efficient." — Davies' Algebra. 

form. 

Obs. 6. — Words used exclusively as Adverbs, should not be 
used as Adjectives. 

Examples — For thine often infirmities. 
Corrected — For thy many or frequent infirmities. 

Rem* — The comparison of Adjectives is not commonly absolute, but 
relative. Thus, in saying this is the svjeetest apple, I merely say that this 
apple possesses a higher degree of the quality than all other apples with 
which it is compared. 



ADJECTIVES POSSESSIVE. 1 63 

ADJECTIVES IN PREDICATION. 

Note IV. An Adjective, like Participles, &c, is 
used in Predication with a Verb, when the Verb 
requires its aid to form the Predicate. 

Examples — " His palsied hand waxed strong." 

11 Canst thou grow sad, as Earth grows bright ?" — Dana. 
" Vanity often renders man contemptible." 

Obs. 1. — Participles, like Verbs, sometimes require the use 
of Adjectives in Predication. 
Example — " The desire of being happy, reigns in all hearts." 

Obs. 2. — Adjectives used in Predication, should not take the 
Adverbial form. 

Example — I feel badly to-night. 
Corrected — I feel bad to-night. 

SPECIFYING ADJECTIVES. 

Note V. Specifying Adjectives restrict their 
Nouns, without denoting quality. 

Obs.1. — Specifying Adjectives should not be used before 
Nouns taken in a general sense. 
Examples — Wisdom is better than rubies — not the wisdom. 
Iron is the most useful of metals — not the iron. 

Obs. 2. — Either and neither always should relate to one of two, 
taken separately. 

Each and every may relate to one or both of two things, taken 
separately. 

Note VI. Possessive Adjectives describe Nouns 
and Pronouns, by indicating possession, fitness, 
origin, condition, &c, &c. 

examples. 

Boys' caps ( ' Boys' " denotes the size of the caps. 

Webster's Dictionary. . ." Webster's" denotes the author. 
" Heaven's immortal Spring shall yet arrive, 
And man's majestic beauty bloom again, 

Bright through the eternal year of Love's majestic reign." — Beattie. 
" I heard of Peter's buying John's horse." 

Rem. — I heard of a certain act — an act of which Peter was the agent — 
hence, it was Peter's act. The act is expressed by the word " buying" — 
hence, the word "Peter's" limits, describes the word " buying;" and is, 
therefore, an Adjective. 



164 PART III. SYNTAX— ADJECTIVES. 

The object of Peter's act is " horse." The word " John's" is used to 
limit that object, not to a particular race, or color, or size, but to a par- 
ticular condition. " John's," therefore, describes " horse" — hence, it is an 

Adjective. 

Note VII. Possessive Adjectives derived from 
Pronouns, should correspond in Gender, Person, 
and Number to the Pronouns from which they are 
derived. 

Examples — / have finished my work. 

He has established his reputation. 
They have accomplished their object. 
We must attend to our interests. 

Obs. 1. — Possessive Adjectives are sometimes qualified by 
Sentences introduced by Relative Pronouns, and by Phrases. 

EXAMPLES. 

" How various his employments, whom the world calls idle." 

Wilson's Burns. 
I have spoken of his eminence as a judge. 

Obs. 2. — Possessive Adjectives, in addition to their primary 
office, sometimes introduce Auxiliary Sentences. 

EXAMPLES. 

" All are but parts of one stupendous whole, 
Whose body Nature is — and God the soul." — Pope. 
" Heaven be their resource, who have no other but the charity of the 
world. — Sterne. 

VERBAL ADJECTIVES. 

Note VIII. A Participle is an Adjective, when- 
ever its principal office is to describe a Noun or 
Pronoun. 

Examples — A standing tree. Blasted fruit. Crushed sugar. For the 
time being. 

"Truth, crushed to earth, will rise again; 

But error, wounded, writhes in pain." 
" The orator, standing on the platform, thus began." 
" The doctor, being then in the house, was called to his bed- 
side." 

Rem. — That the first four Participles in the above examples, are Ad- 
jectives, all grammarians consent. But, in regard to the last form, there 
is not a general agreement. It is maintained that Participles having 
their appropriate position after the Nouns or Pronouns to which they 
belong, should not be regarded as Adjectives — but simply as Participles, 



ADJECTIVES^-VERBAL. * 165 

On the other hand, it is maintained, that Qualifying Adjectives often 
find a place after their Nouns — as he is a kind father, but an unkind 
husband — he is a man kind to his children, but often unkind to his wife. 
Here, it is allowed, that the change of position does not make a change in 
the office of the words. It is a general rule in the use of Adjectives — 
having, it is true, many exceptions — that they precede their Nouns wiien 
they are used without Adjunct Phrases; but when they are modified by- 
Phrases, they follow the words which they qualify. (See page 159, obs. 4.) 

The disagreement in regard to these words, is one of names merely, for 
all grammarians agree that they are Participles, and that they " belong to 
Nouns and Pronouns which tJiey describe" and they disagree only in this — 
one party insist upon adding the name Adjective to that of Participle, by 
virtue of their office; whereas, others do not think it expedient to add an- 
other name. 

Exercises. 
u Truth, crushed to earth, vnll rise again? 



d___ I * n a i n. J 




EARTH?) 



ANALYSIS. 



Princinal Parts i Truth Subject, ) Simple Sentence, 

principal fans .... ^ wm rjge Predicate, \ Intransitive. 

a - ■„„„,„ ( Crushed to earth Adjunct of " truth." 

Aajuncts (Again Adjunct of < ; will rise." 

PARSED. 

Truth is a name Hence . . a Noun. 

" name of principle personified .... Hence . . Proper. 

" spoken of Hence . . Third Person. 

" denotes but one. Hence . . Singular Number. 

" subject of <• will rise" Hence. .Nominative Case. 

Rule — " The Subject of a sentence must be in the Nom- 

i?iative Case? 
Crushed . . . describes " truth" as to condition. Hence . . an Adjective. 
? derived from the Verb " crush" . . . Hence . . Verbal. 
11 has no object Hence . . Intransitive. 

Rule — -Adjectives belong to Nouns and Pronouns^ 
which they describe? 

To earth . . . modifies " crushed" .... Hence . . an Adverb. 

N denotes direction. * Hence . . Adverb of place. 



166 * PART IH. SYNTAX EXERCISES. 

To shows a relation of " crushed" and 

" earth" Hence . . a Preposition. 

Earth is a name Hence . . a Noun. 

" name common to a class Hence . . Common. 

" spoken of Hence . . Third Person. 

" denotes but one Hence . . Singular Number. 

" object of the relation expressed by 

" to" Hence . . Objective Case. 

Rule—" The Object of an action or relation must be in 
the Objective Case." 

Will rise. . . asserts an action Hence . . a Verb. 

" act does not pass to an Object Hence . . Intransitive. 

" simply declares Hence . . Indicative Mode. 

" denotes a future act Hence . . Future Tense. 

" p redicate ° f " truth " Hence { ffil^SsSte. 

Rule — " A Verb must agree with its Subject in Person 
and Number" 

Again modifies " will rise" Hence . . an Adverb. 

" denotes a future repetition Hence . . Adverb of time. 

EXAMPLES FOR PARSING. 

Adjective Words. 

" The wild gazelle on Judah's hills, 

Exulting, yet may bound, 
And drink from all the living rills, 

That gush on holy ground ; 
Its airy step and glorious eye, 
May glance in tameless transport by." 

Adjective Phrases. 
" For the angel of death spread his wings on the blast, 
And breathed in the face of the foe as he passed." 

Adjective Sentences. 
" Guard us, O Thou who never steepest" 

11 ThoU WHOSE SPELL CAN RAISE THE DEAD, 

Bid the prophet's form appear." 
" Who is he that calls the dead V 1 

" From the last hill that looks on thy once holy dome/' 
" O lovely voices of the sky, 

Which hymned the Savour's birth, 
Are ye not singing still on high, 

Ye that sang, 'Peace on Earth V " 
" Among the faithless, faithful only he 
Among innumerable false." — Milton. 



ADVERBS NEGATIVE. 167 

ADVERBS. 

Rule lit Adverbs belong* to Verbs, Adjectives, 
and other Adverbs, which they modify. 

Obs. 1. — An Adverb may be a Word, Phrase, or Sentence. 

EXAMPLES. 

1. A Word I will go soon. 

2. A Phrase. ... I will go in a short time. 

3. A Sentence. . " I shall go ere day departs." — Taylor. 

Obs. 2. — An Adverb may modify a Word, Phrase, or Sen- 
tence. 

1. A Word Heman studies diligently. 

2. A Phrase.. . .Robert went almost to Boston. 

" Practical knowledge can be gained only in this way." 

3. A Sentence. . Mozart, just before he died, said, " Now I begin to learn 

what might be done in music." 

NEGATIVE ADVERBS. 

Obs. 3. — Negative Adverbs are used primarily to modify 
Verbs. 

Example — " They wept not." 

2. To modify Adjectives. 

Examples — Not one of the family was there. 

" Not every one that saith unto me, Lord ! Lord ! shall enter 
into the kingdom of heaven." 

3. To modify other Adverbs. 
Examples— He is not generally in error. 

" They died not by hunger or lingering decay, 
The steel of the white man hath swept them away." 
u Not as the conqueror comes. 
They, the true hearted, came." 

Rem. — The influence of the Negatives, not, neither, &c, is often exerted 
on Nouns, Phrases, or whole Sentences. And, generally, when a Nega- 
tive occurs in connection with other Adjuncts, the influence of the Negative 
reaches the whole proposition, including the other Adjuncts. 

Obs. 4. — The Adverbs yes, yea, no, nay, are independent in 
construction. 

Rem. — The relation of these words to others in the sentence or period 
is logical, rather than grammatical. 

Obs. 5. — A negation allows but one negative in the same 
connection. 
Example — He did not perceive them. 



168 PART lit.— SYNTAX ADVERBS. 

But double negatives are often elegantly used for an affirma- 
tive. 

Example—" Such perplexities are not ^icommon." 

Obs. 6. — The words which Adverbs properly modify are 
sometimes understood, 

Example — Thou canst but add one bitter wo 
To those [ ] already there. 

Obs. 7. Adverbs sometimes take the place of verbs, which they 
modify. 

Examples—" Off, off, I bid you!" " To arms 4" 

" Back to thy punishment, false fugitive !" 

Obs. 8.— Adverbs sometimes take the place of Nouns, and 
hence become Pronouns. 

Examples — " Till then 11 — for, till that time. 

" From there 11 — for, from that place. 

" And I have made a pilgrimage from far. 11 — Hosmer, 

" Oh, let the ungentle spirit learn from hence 

A small unkindness is a great offence." 

Obs, 9.— Participles become Adverbs when they indicate the 
manner of an action, or modify a quality. 

examples, 
" The surging billows and the gamboling storms 
Come, crouching, to his feet" 

" Now it mounts the wave, 
And rises, threatening, to the frowning sky." 
li 'Tis strange, 'tis passing strange." 
" A virtuous household, but exceeding poor." 

Obs. 10. — A few words, commonly used as Prepositions, are 
sometimes used Adverbially. 

Examples — " Thou didst look down upon the naked earth." 
" And may at last my weary age, 
Find out the peaceful hermitage." — Miltoiu 

POSITION. 

Note I, The position of Adverbs should be such 
as most clearly to convey the sense intended. 

Obs. — In constructing a Sentence, judgment and taste are 
the only true criteria. No definite rule can be given. When Ad- 
verbs modify Adjectives and other Adverbs, they are commonly 
placed before the words which they modify. When they modify 
Verbs, they may generally be placed before or after. But 
Negatives are placed after the Verb; 



ADVERBS PHRASES AND SENTENCES. 169 

The Adverb is placed immediately after the first word of a 
Predicate, when it consists of more than one word. 

Examples — You are not the man. 
1 have often seen him. 

Note II. In the use of Adverbs, that form of 
words should be adopted, which is in accordance 
with the best authority. 

Obs. 1. — Most Adverbs are derivative words, and are gener- 
ally formed by adding ly (formerly written I i e — a contraction 
of like) to its primitive. 

Examples — A just man will deal justly. 

A. foolish man will act foolishly. 

Obs. 2. — Generally the Adjective form is given when the 
word expresses the result of the action of a verb upon its subject. 

Examples — " The house was painted green" 
" Open thy mouth wide." 

Note III. Adjectives used in predication with 
verbs, should not take the Adverbial form. 

Correct construction { ™e ^£g££ 

incorrect construction { %5£^k3nZ&£"' 

Note IV. Adverbs of time should indicate the 
time intended. 

Incorrect construction It was now, too, mid- winter. 

ADVERBIAL PHRASES AND SENTENCES. 

Obs. — Phrases and Sentences are properly called Adverbial, 
when they perform the office of Adverbs. 

Rem. — Adverbs occur more frequently in the form of Phrases and Sen- 
tences, than in that of Words. 

examples. 

"A sea 

Of glory streams along the Alpine heights." 
u To me they shovj 
The calm decay of nature." 
" Thou art perched aloft on the beetling crag, 
And the waves are white below ; 
And on with a haste that cannot lag, 
They rush in an endless flow." 



170 PART III.— SYNTAX-— ADVERBS, 

Exercises. 
u Robert went almost to Boston" 

[almqs vj 

ANALYSIS, 

PiW iml ParK 5 Robert Subject, > Simple Sentence, 

Fimcipal farts . . . . j Went Predicate, $ Intransitive. 

A -, . . i To Boston Adjunct of " went." 

Aajuncts J Almost..- Adjunct of « to Boston." 

PARSED. 

Robert is a name Hence . . a Noun. 

" appropriated to an individual Hence . . Proper. 

" denotes a male Hence . . Masculine Gender 

" spoken of Hence . . Third Person. 

" denotes but one Hence . . Singular Number. 

u subject of " went" Hence . . Nominative Case. 

Rule — " The Subject of a sentence must be in the Nom- 
inative Case. 11 
Went asserts an act Hence . . a Verb. 

" does not pass to an object Hence . . Intransitive. 

" simply declares Hence . . Indicative Mode. 

u denotes a past act Hence . . Past Tense. 

" definite in the mind of the speaker Hence . . Past Tense Defin. 

predicate of « Robert" Henee { J^fJ^Z^r. 

Rule — " A Verb must agree with its Subject in Person 

and Number." 
Almost modifies " to Boston" Hence . . an Adverb. 

Rule — " Adverbs belong to Verbs, Adjectives, and other 

Adverbs, which they modify." 

To Boston . . modifies " went" Hence . . an Adverb. 

" denotes place Hence . . Adverb of place. 

Rule — " Adverbs belong to Verbs, Adjectives, and other 

Adverbs, which they modify" 

To shows a relation of " went" and 

" Boston" Hence . . a Preposition. 



ADVERBS EXERCISES QUESTIONS. 171 

Boston is a name Hence . . a Noun. 

" appropriated to one of many cities Hence . . Proper. 

" spoken of Hence . . Third Person. 

" denotes but one Hence . . Singular Number. 

" obj ect of the relation expresssd by 

" to" Objective Case. 

Rule — " The object of an action or relation must be in 
the Objective Case." 

EXAMPLES. 

Adverbial Words. 

" Brilliantly 
The glassy waters mirror forth his smiles." 
" How lightly mounts the Muse's wing, 
Whose theme is in the skies." 

Adverbial Phrases. 
11 For the angel of death spread his wings on the blast, 
And breathed in the face of the foe as he passed." 

Fools die for lack of knowledge. 
" From the last hill that looks on thy once holy dome." 
"In an unexpected hour they were startled by the thunder of the 
cannon." 

Adverbial Sentences. 

lt The man that dares traduce, because he can with safety to himself, 
is not a man." 

11 And breathed in the face of the foe as he passed." 
" And Truth is hushed, that Heresy may preach." 
" When the night storm gathers dim and dark, 
With a shrill and boding scream, 
Thou rushest by the foundering bark, 

Glllick AS A PASSING DREAM." 

QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW. 

What is an Adjunct of a Sentence'? 
What classes of words are used as Adjuncts ? 
Adjuncts may consist of what? 
Adjuncts may belong to what? 

ADJECTIVES. 

What is an Adjective ? 

Adjectives belong to what classes of words ? 

When is a word an Adjective ? 

Adjectives may consist of what ? 

What is the natural postioin of Adjectives ? 

What is the position when it is limited by a Phrase ? 

The position when many Adjectives belong to the same Noun ? 

What is a Numeral Adjective? 

May a Singular and a Plural Adjective belong to the same Noun? 



172 PART III. SYNTAX— PREPOSITIONS. 

May Numerals qualify or specify each other 1 
When may an Adjective be used in Predication 1 
What should be the form of Adjectives in Predication 1 
What is the office of Specifying Adjectives ? 
When is it improper to use Specifying Adjectives 1 
What is the office of Possessive Specifying Adjectives'? 
When is a Participle an Adjective 1 

ADVERBS. 

What is an Adverb 1 

Adverbs modify what classes of words 1 

An Adverb may consist of what 1 

Negative Adverbs have what peculiarity 1 

What Adverbs are Independent in Construction 1 

When may two Negatives be allowed in a Sentence 1 

Adverbs may take the place of what other class of words 1 

When is a Participle an Adverb 1 

What should be the position of Adverbs 1 

What peculiarity in the form of Adverbs ^ 

Adverbs of Time should designate what 1 

PKEPOSITXON. 

Rule I2« A Preposition shows a relation of its 
object to the word which its Phrase qualifies. 

Obs. 1. — The object of a Preposition may be 

A Noun " Comes there from Siberian wastes of snow." 

A Pronoun " He that is not for me, is against me." 

An Adjective " He has faded from earth like a star from on high." 

An Adverb "A voice, from whence I knew not.' 5 

A Participle " Cora is always delighted with singing." 

A Verb " To sleep — perchance to dream !" 

A Phrase " From among thousand celestial ardors." 

A Sentence " To where the river mixes with the main." 

Rem. — A perfect construction of the last and similar examples would 
supply a Noun, as the object of the Preposition. 
Example — " To [the point] where the river mixes with the main." 
Rem. — Scholars often find it difficult to determine the Antecedent term 
of a relation expressed by a Preposition-— examples sometimes occur in 
which the relation of the object of a Preposition seems to exist, not to any 
word, but to the whole Sentence. Generally, however, this question can 
be settled by ascertaining vjhich word is qualified by the Phrase introduced 
by a Preposition — that word is the Antecedent term of relation. 
Example. — " The doctor is a man of science" 

Here the Phrase "of science" qualifies "man" — hence, "man" is the 
Antecedent term of relation — and the Phrase is Adjective. 
" The lowing herd winds slowly o'er the lea" 
Here " o'er the lea " modifies " winds "-—hence, " winds " is the Antece- 
dent — and the Phrase is Adverbial. 



PREPOSITIONS POSITION. 1 ?3 

"And leave the world to darkness and to me." 
Here " to darkness and to me " modifies " leave " — hence, leave is the 
Antecedent — and the Phrase is Adverbial. 

" Which flung its purple o'er his path to heaven." 
Here " to heaven " modifies leading (or a word of similar office), un- 
derstood — hence, " leading " is the proper Antecedent — and the Phrase is 
Adverbial. But the Complex Phrase, "leading to heaven" qualifies 
"path" — hence, "path" is its Antecedent — and the Complex Phrase, 
"leading to heaven," is Adjective. [Seepage 94, note.] 

Obs. 2. — Double Prepositions are sometimes allowed. 

Examples — " Out of every grove the voice of pleasure warbles." 

" There can be no question as to which party must yield." 

Obs. 3. — But two Prepositions should not be used, when one 
of them will fully express the sense intended. 

Examples — " Near to this dome is found a path so green." — Shenstone. 
" Not jfcr to hide it in a hedge." — Bums. 

Obs. 4. — Prepositions are sometimes used in predication with 
Verbs. 

Example — Its idle hopes are o'er. 

Rem, — This construction of the Preposition obtains most frequently 
with the Passive Voice of Verbs whose Active form would be modified by 
a Phrase ; on changing the voice of the Verb from Active to Passive, the 
Preposition introducing that Phrase is retained in predication. 

examples. 

Active I have attended to your business. 

Passive Your business has been attended to by me. 

POSITION. 

Obs. 5. — The proper place for a Preposition is (as its name 
implies) before the Phrase which it introduces. 

Examples — " In dread, in danger, and alone, 

Famished and chilled through ways unknown." 

Obs. 6. — But, by the poets, it is often placed after its object. 

example. 
" What seemed his head, 
The likeness of a kingly crown had on." — Milton. 

Obs. 7 — And sometimes in colloquial style. 
Example — "You will have no mother or sister to go to." — Abbott. 
Rem. — This idiom is inelegant, and not to be recommended. 

Obs. 8. — A Preposition commonly indicates the office of the 
Phrase which it introduces. 
Example — [See page 95.] 



174 



PART III. — SYNTAX — PREPOSITIONS. 



Note I. Care should be exercised in the choice 

of Prepositions. 

Obs. 1. — The particular Preposition proper to introduce a 
given Phrase depends — 

1. Usually on the word which the Phrase is to qualify. 

2. Sometimes on the object of the Phrase. 



EXAMPLES. 



Accommodate to. 
Accord with. 
Accuse of. 
Acquit of. 
Acquainted with. 
Ask of a person. 

" for a thing. 
Believe in the doctrine. 

" on the name. 
Bestow upon. 
Betray to a person. 

'• into a thing. 
Boast of. 
Call on a person. 

" at a place. 
Compare with — to. 
Concur with — in. 
Copy after a person. 

; - from a thing. 
Die by violence. 

'•'- of sl disease. 
Differ from. 
Diminish, from. 
Dissent from. 
Engaged to a person. 
" for a time. 



Engaged in a business. 
Insist upon. 
Made of a thing. 

" by a person. 

" in a, place. 
Rule over a person. 

" in a manner. 
Unite with — to — in. 
Abhorrence of. 
Agreeable to. 
Averse to— from. 
Compliance with. 
Conformable to. 
Dependent upon a person. 

" for a thing. 
Difficulty in — with. 
Eager in— for. 
Equal to — with. 
Familiar to a person. 

" with a thing. 
Need of. 

Prejudice against. 
Regard to— for. 
True to. 
Value upon. 



Worthy of. 

Obs. 2. — When the second term of a Comparison is expressed 
by a Phrase — 

After a Superlative, the Preposition of is commonly used. 
After a Comparative, the Preposition than is commonly used. 

Examples — Grammar is the most interesting q/'all my studies. 

Grammar is more interesting than all my other studies. 

Obs. 3. — When the second term of a Comparison of equality 
is a Noun, or Pronoun, the Preposition as is commonly used — 
sometimes like is used. 

Examples — " He hath died to redeem such a rebel as me" — Wesley. 

" An hoar like this, may well display the emptiness of hu- 
man grandeur.'' 



PREPOSITIONS CONJUNCTIONS. 175 

Obs. 4. — Some writers substitute the words for and with. 

EXAMPLES. 

" It implies government of the very same kind with THAivwhich a mas- 
ter exercises over his servants." — Bp. Butler. 

" Mr. Secor found means to have Mr. Butler recommended to him 
[Lord Talbot] for his chaplain." — Life of Dr. Butler. 

Obs. 5. — Adverbial Conjunctions are sometimes used for Ad- 
verbial Phrases. 

Examples — Where — for in which. 

When — for at which time. 
" O impotent estate of human life, 
Where Hope and Fear maintain eternal strife !" 
11 So said, he o'er his sceptre bowing, rose 
From the right hand of glory where he sat." — Milton. 

CONJUNCTIONS. 

Rule 13. Conjunctions introduce Sentences and 
connect Words and Phrases. 

Rem* — Conjunctions differ from Prepositions in not expressing a rela- 
tion of the words connected. 

Obs. 1. — Conjunctions may be omitted when the connection is 
sufficiently clear without them. 

Examples — " Unnumbered systems, [ ] suns, and worlds, 
Unite to worship thee ; 
While thy majestic greatness fills 

Space, [ ] Time, [ ] Eternity." 

Obs. 2. — The position of Sentences often determines their 
connection. 

Examples — " The time may come you need not run." — Thomson. 
" Milton ! thou shouldst be living at this hour— 
[For] England hath need of thee." — Wordsworth. 

Obs. 3. — Relative Pronouns and Possessive Adjectives de- 
rived from them, serve, in addition to their primary office, to 
introduce Auxiliary Sentences. 

Examples — " He who filches from me my good name 
Robs me of that which not enriches him." 
" Lo the poor Indian whose untutored mind 
Sees God in clouds or hears him in the wind." 
" Thou hadst a voice vjhose sound was like the sea." 

Obs. 4. — The Conjunction that often introduces a sentence 
which is the logical object of a verb or participle going before 
in construction. 

Example — " The creditor demanded that payment should be made" 
[See Diagram, p. 30.] 



)76 PART III. — -SYNTAX CONJUNCTIONS. 

Obs. 5. — Conjunctions that introduce Auxiliary Sentences, 
and some others, indicate the offices of the Sentences which they 
introduce. 

If, Unless, &c.j indicate condition. 

As, When, Before, &c., indicate time. 

For, Hence, Therefore, &c, indicate an inference or cause. 

But, Yet, Nevertheless, &c., indicates restriction or opposition. 

Nor, Neither, &c, indicate a negation. 

Examples — " If sinners entice thee, consent thou not.' 7 
Speak of me as I am — nothing extenuate 
Nor set down aught in malice" 

Obs. 6. — The Adverb " how " is sometimes improperly used 
instead of the Conjunction " that." 

Example — " She tells me how with eager speed 

He flew to hear my vocal reed." — Shenstone. 

Obs. 7. — Conjunctions sometimes introduce the remnant of a 

Sentence. 

Example — Though [ ] afflicted he is happy. 

Obs. 8. — Words connected by Conjunctions have a similar 
construction. 

Examples — " God created the heaven and the earth.'' 1 

" Time slept on flowers, and lent his glass to hope." 
" A great and good man has fallen." 
Rem* — " Heaven " and " earth " are alike Objects of " created." 
" Slept " and " lent " are Predicates of " Time.*" 
" Great " and " good " describe " man." 

Obs. 9. — But they have not necessarily similar modifications. 

Example — " Every teacher has and must have his own particular way 
of imparting knowledge." — McElligott. 

Rem. — "Has" and "must have" are Predicates of "teacher" — but 
they are not of the same Mode nor Tense. 

Obs. 10. — -Position. — The proper place for a Conjunction is 
before the sentence which it introduces, and between the words 
or phrases which it connects. 

Example — " And there lay the rider, distorted and pale, 

With the dew on his brow and the rust on his mail." 

Obs. 11. — But, in complex sentences, the Conjunction intro- 
ducing the Principal Sentence is commonly placed first, and 
that introducing the Auxiliary Sentence immediately following. 

Example — " And when its yellow lustre smiled 
O'er mountains yet untBod, 
Each mother held aloft her child 
To bless the bow of God." 



CONJUNCTIONS EXCLAMATIONS. 177 

But to this rule there are exceptions. 

Examples — " They kneeled before they fought. " 

" How vain are all these glories, all our pains, 
Unless good sense preserve what beauty gains" — Pope. 

CORRESPONDING CONJUNCTIONS. 

Obs. 12. — Many Conjunctions correspond to Adverbs, to 
Prepositions, and to other Conjunctions. 

As so " As is the mother so is the daughter." 

So as £< Mary is not so cheerful as usual." 

Both and " Both good and bad were gathered in one group." 

Either or " Either you mistake, or I was misinformed." 

Neither nor " Neither Alice nor Caroline has been here to day." 

Whether . . or " 1 care not whether you go or stay." 

So that " He called so loud that all the hollow deep." 

Such that " My engagements are such that I cannot go." 

If then f ' If you will take the right, then 1 will go to the left." 

Not only . . but also . . . " She was not only vain, but also extremely ignorant." 
Though. . .yet " Though man live a hundred years, yet is his life 

as vanity." 
Because., .therefore..." Therefore doth my father love me, because I lay 

down my life." 

Rem. — The Antecedent corresponding word is sometimes expletive. 

Obs. 13 — Double Conjunctions are sometimes used. 

Examples — " As though he had not been anointed with oil." 
" And yet, fair bow, no fabling dreams, 
But words of the Most High 
Have told why first thy robe of beams 
Was woven in the sky." 

Obs. 1 4. — But they may not be used when one of them would 
fully express the connection. 

Example — " There would be no doubt but that they would remain." 
The word " but" is unnecessary and improper. 

EXCLAMATIONS. 

Rule 14. Exclamations have no dependent con- 
struction. 

Obs. — Exclamations may be followed by Words, Phrases, or 
Sentences. 

Examples — " O Scotia ! my dear, my native soil ! 

Wo ! Wo ! to the riders that trample thee down." 
11 O that I could again recall 
My early joys, companions, all !" 



178 PART III. SYNTAX WORDS OF EUPHONY. 



EUPHONY. 

Print — Words of Euphony are in their offices 
chiefly rhetorical. 

Rem. — The principles of Euphony are much required in the structure 
of all languages. For Euphony, words are altered in form, position, 
and office — and they are for Euphony created or omitted. 

Obs. — Euphony allows — 

1. The transposition of words in a Sentence. 

Example — " From peak to peak the rattling crags among 
Leaps the live thunder." 

2. The omission of a letter or syllable. 
Example — " Hark ! His the breeze of twilight calling." 

3. The substitution of one letter for another. 

EXAMPLES. 

Collect Syllogism Immigrant. 

For CYmleet £talogism immigrant. 

4. The addition of a letter, syllable, or word. 
Example — " It was his bounder duty thus to act." 

5. A word to be separated into parts, and another word in- 
serted between them. 

Example — " How much soever we may feel their force." 

6. A word to be used not in its ordinary office. 

Examples — " And there lay the steed with his nostril all wide" 
" The more I see of this method, the better I like it." 

POSITION. 

Obs. 2. — Words of Euphony should be placed in their appro- 
priate connection. 

In the following examples, this principle is violated : 

" To think of others, and not only of himself." 
Here " only" is used to render "himself" emphatic. A better position 
would be — " and not of himself only" 

" Joyous Youth and manly Strength and stooping Age are even here." 
Better — Joyous Youth and manly Strength and even stooping Age are 
here. 

" When our hatred is violent, it sinks us even beneath those we hate." 

Better — it sinks us beneath even those we hate. 

" Even in their ashes live their wonted fires." 



GENERAL RULES. 179 

Obs. 3. — A word repeated in the same connection, is to be 
regarded as a word of Euphony. 

Examples — "Down! down! the tempest plunges on the sea." 
" For life ! for life! their flight they ply." 

GENERAL RULES. 

1. In constructing a Sentence, such words should be chosen 
as will most clearly convey the sense intended — regard being 
had also to variety and other principles of taste. 

2. In expressing Complex ideas, judgment and taste are to 
be exercised in the use of Phrases and Sentences, when they 
may equally convey the sense — regard being had 1st, to the 
sense — 2d, to good taste, &c. 

3. That Modification of words should be adopted, which is in 
accordance with the most reputable usage. 

4. The relative Position of Words. Phrases, and Sentences, 
should be such as to leave no obscurity in the sense. 

5. Involved Complex Sentences should not be used, when 
Simple or Independent Sentences would better convey the sense. 

GLUESTIONS FOR REVIEW. 

PREPOSITIONS. 

What is the office of a Preposition 1 

The object of a Preposition may consist of what 1 

How are we to determine what word is the antecedent term of a rela- 
tion'? 

When may double Prepositions be used 1 

When may Prepositions be used in Predication 1 

What is the proper position of a Preposition 7 

How are we to determine what Preposition to use in a given Phrase 7 

When the Antecedent and Consequent are related by comparison, what 
Preposition is used 1 

CONJUNCTIONS. 

What is the office of Conjunctions 1 

Wherein does the office of a Conjunction differ from that of a Preposi- 
tion'? 

When may the Conjunction be omitted'? 

What other words are used to introduce sentences'? 

What secondary office do some Conjunctions perform'? 

Wherein must words connected by a Conjunction agree 1 

What is the proper position of a Conjunction 7 

What peculiarity opposition in complex sentences'? 

When may double Conjunctions be used 1 



180 



PART III.— SYNTAX EXERCISES. 



EXCLAMATIONS. 

What is an Exclamation 1 

"What relation have they to other words in a Sentenced 

Exclamations are followed by what 7 

WORDS OF EUPHONY. 

What is the office of a Word of Euphony 1 

Principles of Euphony allow what deviations from the ordinary struc- 
ture of Words, Phrases, and Sentences 1 

Exercises. 
u For the angel of death spread his wings on the blast 5 
And breathed in the face of the foe as he passed." 

CD 




Principal 
Parts. 



Adjuncts. 



Auxiliary 
Sentence. 



Angel Subject, 

Spread ) 
[and] } Predicates 
Breathe 



Compound Sentence 
Mixed. 



Breathed ) 
^ Wings .... Object of " spread." ^ 

Of death} Adjuncts of "angel." 

His Adjunct of " wings." 

On the blast Adjunct of " spread." 

I As t pall / ** ** } A%? ° f " ***?£ 

As introduces the sentence ) «• ^ lrt c™+™^ 

Wp SnW«,r f Simple Sentence, 

l Intransitive. 



'He. 

' Passed . 



Subject, 
.Predicate. 



For 



The, 



Angel 



PARSED. 

. introduces the sentence Hence . . a Conjunction. 

Rule. — '• Conjunctions introduce sentences and con- 
nect words and phrases." 

.specifies '.angel" Hence { g*|jg* • 

Rule. — " Adjectives belong to Nouns and Pronouns 
which they describe." 

. is a name Hence . . a Noun. 

one of a class Hence . . Common. 

spoken of. „ Hence . . Third Person. 

denotes but one Hence . . Singular Number. 

subject of the words "spread" 

and " breathed " Hence . .Nominative Case. 



EXERCISES IN PARSING. 181 

Rule. — " The Subject of a sentence must be in the 
Nominative Case. 1,1 

Of death specifies -angel" Hence { ^edlying 6 

Rule. — " Adjectives belong to Nouns and Pronouns 
which they describe" 

Of « introduces a Phrase, showing a 

relation of " death " to " angel." Hence, .a Preposition. 

Rule. — " A Preposition shows a relation of its object 
to the word ivhich its phrase qualifies." 

Death is a name Hence . . a Noun. 

denotes a class Hence . . Common. 

" spoken of Hence . . Third Person. 

11 denotes but one Hence . . Singular Number. 

" Object of, the relation expressed 

by " of " Hence . . Objective Case. 

Rule. — u The object of an action or relation must be 

in the Objective Case." 
Spread asserts an act Hence . . a Verb. 

act passes to an object Hence . . Transitive. 

" simply declares Hence . . Indicative Mode. 

" denotes a past act (definite in the 

mind of the speaker) Hence . . Past Tense Def. 

Predicate of « angel » Hence { ^toSber. 

Rule. — " A Verb must agree with its subject in Per- 
son and Number" 

His describes " wings " Hence . . an Adjective. 

u describes by specifying Hence . . Specifying. 

" specifies by denoting possession Hence . . Possessive. 

Rule. — " Adjectives belong to Nouns and Pronouns 
which they describe." 

Wing is a name Hence . . a Noun. 

" name of a class of things Hence . . Common. 

" spoken of Hence . . Third Person. 

" denotes but one Hence . . Singular Number 

" Object of the action expressed 

by " spread " Hence . . Objective Case. 

Rule. — " The object of an action or relation must be 
in the Objective Case" 



182 PART III. SYNTAX EXERCISES. 

On the blast . . modifies " spread " — denoting 

place Hence . . Adv. of Place. 

Rule. — u Adverbs belong to Verbs, Adjectives, and 
other Adverbs which they modify? 1 

On shows a relation of " spread " 

and " blast " Hence . . a Preposition. 

Rule. — " A Preposition shows a relation of its object 
to the word which its Phrase qualifies.'' 1 

The describes " blast " by specifying Hence . . Adj. Specifying. 

Blast is a name Hence . . a Noun. 

" name of a class of things Hence . . Common. 

" spoken of Hence . . Third Person.. 

" denotes but one Hence . . Singular Number. 

" Object of relation expressed 

by "on" Hence . . Objective Case. 

Rule. — " The object of an action or relation must be 
in the Objective Case. 11 

And connects the words " spread " and 

" breathed " Hence . . a Conjunction. 

Rule. — " Conjunctions introduce Sentences and con- 
nect words and Phrases. 11 

Breathed asserts an act Hence . . a Verb. 

" act does not pass to an object. . . Hence . . Intransitive. 

" simply declares Hence Indicative Mode. 

" denotes a past act Cdefinite in 

the mind of the speaker and 

made definite to the hearer by 

the Auxiliary sentence "as he 

passed " Hence . . Past Tense Def. 

Predicate of « angel - Hence j £^£X£ber. 

Rule. — u A Verb must agree with its subject in Per- 
son and Number. 11 

In the face ) modifies "breathed" — denoting 

of the foe. ) place Hence . . Adv. of Place. 

Rule. — " Adverbs belong to Verbs, Adjectives, and 
other Adverbs which they modify. 11 

In shows a relation of " breathed " 

and " face " Hence . . a Preposition. 

Rule. — " A Preposition shows a relation of its object 
to the word which its Phrase qualifies. 11 



EXERCISES IN PARSING. 183 

The describes " face " by specifying Hence . . Adj. Specifying. 

Rule. — " Adjectives belong to Nouns and Pronouns 
which they describe" 

Face is a name Hence . . a Noun. 

■ name of a class Hence . . Common. 

" spoken of Hence . . Third Person. 

" denotes but one Hence . . Singular Number. 

" Object of relation expressed by 

" in " Hence . . Objective Case. 

Rule. — " The object of an action or relation must be 
in the Objective Case" 

Of the foe describes " face " by specifying Hence . . Adj. Specifying. 

Rule. — " Adjectives belong to Nouns and Pronouns 
which they describe." 

Of shows a relation of " face " an 

11 foe n Hence . . a Preposition. 

Rule. — u A Preposition shows a relation of its object 
to the word which its Phrase qualifies" 

The describes " foe " — by specifying Hence . . Adj. Specifying. 

Rule. — " Adjectives belong to Nouns and Pronouns 
which they describe." 

Foe is a name Hence . . a Noun. 

u name of a class Hence . . Common. 

" spoken of Hence . . Third Person. 

" denotes but one Hence . . Singular Number. 

" Object of relation expressed by 

"of" Hence .. Objective Case. 

Rule. — u The object of an action or relation must be 
in the Objective Case." 

As he passed . .modifies ' : breathed " — denoting 

time Hence . . Adv. of Time. 

Rule. — " Adverbs belong to Verbs, Adjectives, and 
other Adverbs which they modify." 

As introduces an Auxiliary Sen- 
tence Hence . . a Conjunction. 

Rule. — £i Conjunctions introduce Sentences and con- 
nect Words and Phrases." 



184 PART III, — SYNTAX — EXERCISES. 

He .is used for a name Hence .. a Pronoun. 

" its form determines its Person 

and Number Hence . . Personal. 

" spoken of Hence .. Third Person. 

« denotes but one Hence . . Singular Number- 

« subject of " passed " - Hence . . Nominative Case. 

Rule. — ■" The Subject of a Sentence must be in the 
Nominative Case." 

Passed asserts an act Hence, .a Verb. 

" act does not pass to an object. . . Hence . . Intransitive. 

" simply declares Hence . . Indicative Mode. 

" denotes a past act (definite in 

the mind of the speaker) Hence . . Past Tense Def. 

** » -,,!.,} t-t f Third Person, 

Predicate ol << he Hence J Singular Number . 

Rule.- — " A Verb must agree with its Subject in Per- 
son and Number." 

ADDITIONAL EXAMPLES FOR PARSING. 



: He was stirred 



With such an agony he sweat extremely." — Henry VIIL, ii. 2. 
" But it is fit things be stated as they are considered — as they really are." 

Bp. Butler. 

" He, whose soul 

Ponders this true equality, may walk 

The fields of earth with gratitude and hope." — Wordsworth. 
" Before we passionately desire any thing which another enjoys, we 
should examine into the happiness of its possessor." 
" They say ' this shall be,' and it is, 
For ere they act, they think." — Burns. 
" My heart is awed within me, when I think of the great miracle that 
still goes on in silence round me." 

" Take good heed, 
Nor there be modest, where thou shouldst be proud." — Young. 
" Ambition saw that stooping Rome could bear - 
A master, nor had virtue to be free." — Thomson. 
'• Such expressions invest their genius with greater loveliness, because 
they throw over it the graceful mantle of humility." 

" Though thunder-clouds the sky deform, 
Their fury cannot reach me there." 
" Let not false pride, lest we should betray ignorance, prevent us from 
asking a question, when it can be answered." 

" But when loud surges lash the sounding shore, 
The hoarse, rough verse should like the torrent roar." 



RECAPITULATION OF THE RULES OF SYNTAX. 185 

" The time was when princes were scarcely rich enough to purchase a 
copy of the Bible." 

" O ! let the steps of youth be cautious, 
How they advance into a dangerous world." 
" If the great Apostles of Science confessed they knew so little, what 
ground of boasting can there be for the tyro- in their schools V 
" And in her greedy whirlpool sucks the tides, 

Then spouts them from below." 
" Thou art the ruins of the noblest man, 
That ever lived in the tide of time." 
" With what loud applause didst thou beat heaven with blessing 
Bolingbroke before he was what thou wouldst have him be." 
' Nor will I at my humble lot repine, 
Though neither wealth, nor fame, nor luxury be mine." 
" Mists from black jealousies the tempest form, 
Whilst late divisions reinforce the storm." 
" When we consider carefully what appeals to our minds, and exercise 
upon it our own reason, taking into respectful consideration what others 
say upon it, and then come to a conclusion of our own, we act as intel- 
ligent beings." 

" As the bright stars and milky way, 
Showed by the night are hid by day, 
So we in that accomplished mind, 
Help'd by the night new graces find, 
Which by the splendor of her view, 
Dazzled before we never knew." — Waller. 
" And shout their raptures to the cloudless skies, 
While every jovial hour on downy pinions flies." 

RECAPITULATION OF THE RULES OF SYNTAX. 

Rule 1. — The Subject of a Sentence — Noun or Pronoun. 

The Subject of a Sentence must be in the Nom- 
inative Case. 

Rule 2. — Predicate of a Sentence — Verb. 

A Verb must agree with its Subject in Person 
and Number. 

Rule 3. — Verb — Infinitive. 

A Verb in the Infinitive Mode is the Object of the 
Preposition to ? expressed or understood. 

Rule 4. — Participles. 

A Participle has the same construction as the 
" part of speech' 7 for which it is used. 



186 PART III.— SYNTAX RECAPITULATION. 

Rule 5.- — The Object of a Sentence or Phrase — Noun or 

Pronoun. 

The object of an action or relation must be in the 
Objective Case. 

Rule 6. — Possessive Case — Noun or Pronoun. 
A Noun or Pronoun in the Possessive Case is 
used Adjectively. 

Rule 7. — Independent' Case — Noun or Pronoun. 
A Noun or Pronoun not dependent on any other 
word in construction is in the Independent Case. 

Rule 8. — Pronouns. 

A Pronoun must agree with its Antecedent in 
Gender, Person, and Number. 

Rule 9. — Adjective Pronouns. 
Adjective Pronouns are substituted for the Nouns 
which they qualify. 

Rule 10. — Adjectives. 
Adjectives belong- to Nouns and Pronouns which 
they describe. 

Rule 11.— Adverbs. 
Adverbs belong- to Verbs, Adjectives, and other 
Adverbs, which they modify. 

Rule 12. — Prepositions. 
A Preposition shows a relation of its object to 
the word which its Phrase qualifies. 

Rule 13. — Conjunctions. 

Conjunctions introduce Sentences and cbnnect 
Words and Phrases. 

Rule 14. — Exclamations. 

Exclamations have no dependent construction. 



PART IV. 



Deft 1« That part of the Science of Language 
which treats of utterance, is called 

Prosody. 

Obs. — Utterance is modified by Pauses, Accent, and the laws 
of Versification. 

PAUSES. 

Def» 2. Pauses are cessations of the voice in 
reading* or speaking. 

r\ 1 t> { Rhetorical and 

Obs. 1. — Pauses are < n .. i 

( (xrammatical. 

Obs. 2. — Rhetorical Pauses are useful chiefly in arresting 
attention. They are generally made after, or immediately be- 
fore emphatic words. 

They are not indicated by marks. 

Examples — There is a calm for those who weep. 
A rest for weary pilgrims found. 

Obs. 3. — Grammatical Pauses are useful — in addition to their 
Rhetorical effect — in determining the sense. 
They are indicated by 

MARKS OF PUNCTUATION. 

They are — 

The Comma , The Period • 

The Semicolon ; The Interrogation I 

The Colon : The Exclamation ! 

The Dash — 

Obs. 4. — In its Rhetorical office. 

The Comma requires a short pause in reading. 



188 PART IV.— PROSODY PAUSES. 

The Semicolon, a pause longer than the Comma. 
The Colon, a pause longer than the Semicolon. 
The Period requires a full pause. 

The Dash, the marks of Exclamation and Interrogation, re- 
quire pauses corresponding with either of the other marks. 

Rem. — In the use of Marks of Punctuation, good writers differ; and it 
is exceedingly difficult for the Teacher to give Rules for their use, that 
can be of general application. 

The following Rules are the most important. 

COMMA. 

Rule — Words similar in construction, having a connective 
understood, are separated by a Comma. 

EXAMPLES. 

David was a brave, martial, enterprising prince. 

" There is such an exactness in definition, such a pertinence in proof, 
such a perspicuity in his detection of sophisms, as have been rarely em- 
ployed in the Christian cause." — B. B. Edwards. 

Obs. — When more than two words of the same construction 
occur consecutively, the Comma should be repeated after each. 
Examples — " Fame, wisdom, love, and power, were mine." 

" Unnumbered systems, suns, and worlds, unite to worship 

thee." 
Veracity, justice, and charity, are essential virtues. 

Eule — The parts of a Complex Sentence should be separated 
by a Comma, when the Auxiliary precedes the Principal Sen- 
tence. 
Examples — " Where wealth and freedom reign, contentment fails." 

" If thine enemy hunger, feed him ; if he thirst, give him 
drink." 

Rule — An Adjunct Phrase or Sentence, used to express an 
incidental fact, and placed between the parts of the Principal 
Sentence, is separated by Commas. 

Examples — " The grave, that never spoke before, 

Hath found, at length, a tongue to chide." 
" But now a wave, high rising o'er the deep, 
Lifts its dire crest." 

Obs. 2. — But when an Adjunct Phrase or Sentence which is 
indispensable in perfecting the sense immediately follows the 
word which it qualifies, the Comma should not intervene. 

Example—'' Every one thatfindelh me, shall slay me." 



PAUSES THE COMMA. 189 

Rule — Words, Phrases, and Sentences, thrown in between 
the parts of a Sentence. 

1. As denoting an inference from a foregoing fact. 

2. To modify the whole proposition. 

EXAMPLES. 

11 Go, then, where, wrapt in fear arid gloom, 

Fond hearts and true are sighing.' 5 
11 Now, therefore, I pray thee, let thy servant abide." 
11 It might seem, indeed, in a superficial view, that the preaching of the 
Gospel requires only ordinary powers of understanding." — B. B. Edwards. 
11 These questions, too, were carefully studied." 
" It is a clear lake, the very picture, ordinarily, of repose." 

Rule— A Phrase or Sentence used as the Subject of a Verb, 
requires a Comma between it and the Verb. 

EXAMPLES. 

To do good to others, constitutes an important object of existence. 
That we are rivals, does not necessarily make us enemies. 

Rule — Words used in direct addresses, and independent 
Phrases, should be separated by a Comma. 

EXAMPLES. 

" Thou, whose spell can raise the dead, 
Bid the prophet's form appear ; 

Samuel, raise thy buried head ! 
King, behold the phantom seer !" 
" Child, amidst the flowers that play, 

While the red light fades away ; 

Mother, with thy earnest eye 

Ever following silently ; 

Father, by the breeze of eve, 

Called thy harvest work to leave; 

Pray ! — ere yet the dark hours be, 

Lift the heart and bend the knee !" 

Rule — Adjunct Sentences, Phrases, and sometimes Words, 
not in their natural position, should be separated by a Comma. 



<; Into this illustrious society, he whose character I have endeavored 
feebly to pourtray, has, without doubt, entered." 

Rem. — The style of composition often determines the pauses, and, con- 
sequently, the marks of punctuation. Thus, a Mathematical Proposition — 
or an argumentative and logical discourse requires " close pointing." 
Whereas, a narrative, a description, and generally, all compositions in 
which the style is loose, require fewer pauses, and, by consequence, fewer 
marks. 



190 PART IV. PROSODY— PAUSES. 

SEMICOLON. 

Rule— The Semicolon is used at the close of a sentence^ 
which, by its terms, promises an additional sentence. 

EXAMPLES. 

" The Essayists occupy a conspicuous place in the last century ; but, 
somehow, I do not feel disposed to set much store by them. 3 ' 
" The fruitless showers of worldly wo, 
Pall dark to earth and never rise ; 
While tears that from repentance flow, 
In bright exhalement reach the skies." — Moore. 

Obs. — By many writers, the Semicolon is used to separate 
short sentences, which have not a close dependence on each 
other. 

EXAMPLES'. 

u He was a plain man, without any pretension to pulpit eloquence, or 
any other accomplishment; he had no gift of imagination ; his language 
was hard and dryj and his illustrations, homely." 
" We are watchers of a beacon, 
Whose light must never die ; 
We are guardians of an altar 

Midst the silence of the sky ; 
The rocks yield founts of courage, 

Struck forth as by thy rod ; 
For the strength of the hills we bless thee, 
Our God, our fathers' God." — Mrs. Hemans. 
I had a seeming friend ; — I gave him gifts and he was gone ; 
I had an open enemy ; I gave him gifts, and won him ; — 
The very heart of hate melteth at a good man's love." 

COLON. 

Rule — The Colon is used at the close of a sentence, when 
another sentence is added as a direct illustration or inference. 

EXAMPLES. 

" Let me give you a piece of good counsel, my cousin : follow my laud- 
able example : write when you can : take Time's forelock in one hand, 
and a pen in the other, and so make sure of your opportunity." — Cowper. 
" Among relations, certainly there is always an incitement: we always 
feel an anxiety for their welfare." — H. K. White. 

" From the last hill that looks on thy once holy dome, 
I beheld thee, O Sion ! when rendered to Rome : 
'Twas thy last sun went down, and the flames of thy fall 
Flashed back on the last glance I gave to thy wall." 

Hebrew Melodies. 

Rem* — The Colon is not much used by late writers — its place being 
supplied by the Semicolon, the Dash, or the Period. 



PAUSES THE DASH. 191 

PERIOD. 

Rule — The Period is used at the close of a complete or inde- 
pendent proposition. 

^ Obs. — The Period is also used after initial letters and abbre- 
viations. 

Example — J. &. Adams, LL.D., M. C. 

DASH. 

Rule — The Dash is used to indicate, 

1. An abrupt transition. 

2. An unfinished sentence. 

3. A succession of particulars. 

EXAMPLES. 

" All this dread order break — for whom ? for thee 1 
Vile worm! — O madness! pride! impiety!" 
" They met to expatiate and confer on state affairs — to read the news- 
papers — to talk a little scandal — and so forth — and the result was — as we 
have been told — considerable dissipation." — Wilson 1 s Burns. 
" And is thy soul immortal? — What remains ? 
All, all, Lorenzo ! — Make immortal blessed — 
Unblest immortals ! — What can shock us more V* 
u . To me the Night Thoughts is a poem, on the whole, most animating 
and delightful — amazingly energetic — full of the richest instruction — 
improving to the mind — much of it worthy of being committed to me- 
mory — some faults — obscure — extravagant — tinged occasionally with flat- 
tery." 

Obs. 1. — The Dash is often used instead of the Parenthesis. 

EXAMPLE. 

" As they disperse they look very sad — and, no doubt they are so — but 
had they been, they would not have taken to digging." 

Obs. 2. — Many modern writers use the Dash in place of the 
Semicolon and the Colon — and sometimes with them. 

EXAMPLES. 

" Ye have no need of prayer ; 
Ye have no sins to be forgiven." — Sprague. 
" What is there saddening in the Autumn leaves 1 
Have they that ' green and yellow melancholy ' 
That the sweet Poet spoke of? Hath he seen 
Our variegated woods, when first the frost 
Turns into beauty all October's charms — 
When the dread fever quits us — when the storms 
Of the wild Equinox, with all its wet 
Has left the land ." Brainerd. 



192 PART IV. PROSODY— SIGNS. 



EXCLAMATION. 

Hule — The mark of Exclamation is used after a word, phrase, 
or sentence, whose prominent office is to express sudden or in- 
tense emotion, 

EXAMPLES. 

" Hark ! a strange sound affrights mine ear. 5 ' 
" To arms ! — they come ! — -the Greek, the Greek !" 
" 'Tis done ! arise I he bids thee stand." 

INTERROGATION. 

Rule — The mark of Interrogation is used after a word, 
phrase, or sentence, by which a question is asked. 
Example — " Why is my sleep disquieted 1 
Who is he that calls the dead ? 
Is it thou, O king f» 

Rem* — When the Interrogation or Exclamation is used, the Comma, 
Semicolon, Colon, or Period, is omitted. 

GRAMMATICAL AND RHETORICAL SIGNS. 
Obs. 1. — -The signs used in writing are 

1. The Apostrophe ' g MeMurefl < Long - 

2. The Quotation " » y ' Measures j ghort ^ 

3. The Hyphen - 10. Caret a 

4. The Bracket [ j 11. Diaeresis v 

5. The Parenthesis ( ) 12. Index irj 3 

6. References * f 13. The Section § 

7. The Brace \ ! 4. The Paragraph IF 

C Rising 

8. Inflections I Falling x 

( Circumflex 

The Apostrophe (') is used to indicate the omission of a letter 
— and to change a Noun into a Possessive Specifying Adjective. 
Examples — "Hearts, from which Hwas death to sever ; 
Eyes, this world can ne'er restore." 
" How lightly mounts the Muse's wing." 

The Quotation { u ") is used to inclose words taken from some 
other author or book. 

Examples — " Southey, among ail our living poets," says Professor Wil- 
son, " stands aloof and ' alone in his glory.' " 

A quotation quoted is indicated by single marks. 

Example — [See the latter part of the example above.] 



SIGNS DEFINITIONS. 193 

The Hyphen [-] is used between two elements of a compound 
word. 
Examples — Money-maker — ink-stand — black-board. 

Rem. — It is also used at the end of a line, when, the word is not fin- 
ished. [See this remark.] 

The Bracket [ ] is used to inclose a letter or mark, given 
as an explanatory example; or a word, phrase, or sentence, 
thrown in by a reviewer, and not a part of the original sen- 
tence. 

Examples — " Milton ! thou shouldst be living at this hour — 
[For] England hath need of thee." 

" Mr. Secor found means to have Mr. Butler recommended 
to him [Lord Talbot] for his chaplain." 

The Parenthesis ( ) is used to inclose a phrase or sentence, ex- 
planatory of, or incidental to, the main sentence. 

Obs. 2. — Modern writers often use the Dash for the same 
purpose. 

Example — " The monotony of a calm — for the trade- wind had already 
failed us — was agreeably relieved yesterday, by the neigh- 
borhood of two ships," &c— Malcolm. 

References ( # f | §) direct attention to notes at the margin 
or bottom of the page. 

Obs. 3. — The letters of the Latin or Greek alphabets, and 
sometimes figures, are used for the same purpose. 

The Brace (^ ) is used to join three lines in a triplet — and to 

include many species in one class. 

Examples — " Four limpid fountains from the cliffs distill ; ' 
And every fountain pours a several rill, 
In mazy windings wandering down the hill ; \ 
Where blooms with vivid green were crowned, 
And glowing violets cast their odors round." 

Inflections ('"") indicate elevations or depressions of the key 
note in reading. 

Examples — " Do you go to Albany' V 7 " I go to Utica." 

f (-) indicates the long sound of a syllable, 
^ J as late, mete, note. 

Measures ^ ^ indicates the short sound of a syllable, 
L as let, met, not. 
9 



194 PART IV.— PROSODY— COMPOSITION. 

The Caret (a) is used between two words, to indicate the 
place of words omitted, and placed above the line. 

of mankind 

Example — " The proper study .is man." 

Diceresis (••) is placed over the second of two vowels, to show 
that they belong to different syllables. 

Examples— Preemption Coeval Reeducate. 

Obs. 4. — The Hyphen is sometimes placed between the vowels, 
for a similar purpose. 
Example — Co-operate. 

The Index (HJr 3 ) is use d to point out a word or sentence, 
considered worthy of special notice. 

The Section (§) marks the divisions of a chapter or book. 
The Paragraph (^f) is used when a new subject of remark is 
introduced. 

Rem. — The sign of the Paragraph is retained in the Holy Scriptures ; 
but in other composition, the Paragraph is sufficiently indicated by its 
commencing a new line on the page. 

Accent is a stress of voice placed on a particular syllable in 
pronouncing a word. 

Emphasis is a stress of voice placed on a particular word in a 
sentence. This mark is indicated, 

1. In manuscript, by a line drawn under the emphatic word. 

2. On a printed page, by the use of Italic letters — CAPITAL 
letters are used to indicate words still more emphatic. 

COMPOSITION. 

Def. Composition — as the word implies — is the 
art of placing together words, so as to communicate 
ideas. 

Composition is of two kinds, 

PROSE AND VERSE. 

In Prose Composition, words and phrases are arranged with a 
primary reference to the sense. 

In Verse, the sound and measure of words and syllables 
determine their position. 

Among the various kinds of Prose Composition, may be men- 
tioned the following : 

Narrative, Descriptive, Didactic, Historical, Biographical 



COMPOSITION— POETRY. 195 

VERSE. 

Verse consists in words arranged in measured 
lines, constituting a regular succession of accented 
and unaccented syllables. Verse is used in Poetry. 
The different kinds of Poetry are. 

Lyric, Epigram, 

Dramatic, Epitaph, 

Epic, Sonnet, 

Didactic, Pastoral. 

Lyric Poetry is — as its name imports — such as may be set 
to music. 

It includes the " Ode " and the " Song." 

Dramatic Poetry is a poem descriptive of scenes, events, or 
character, and is adapted to the stage. 

T , . , , ( The Traffic and 

Tt ineludcs \ The Comic. 

Epic Poetry is a historical representation — real or fictitious — 
of great events. 

Didactic Poetry is that style adapted to the inculcation of 
science or duty. 

An Epigram is a witty poem, short, and generally abounds in 
ludicrous expressions. 

An Epitaph is a poetic inscription to the memory of some 
departed person. 

A Sonnet is an ode of a peculiar structure, and generally of 
fourteen lines. 

Pastoral Poetry relates to rural life, and is generally a 



VERSIFICATION. 

Versification is the art of making* verse — i. e., the 
proper arrangement of a certain number of syllables 
in a line. 

There are two prominent distinctions in verse, 

1. Blank Verse* 

2. Rhyme. 



196 PART IV.— PROSODY VERSIFICATION. 

Blank Verse consists in measured lines of ten syllables each, 
and which may or may not end with the same sound. 

Rhyme consists in measured lines, of which two or more end 
with the same sound. 

A Line in poetry, is properly called 

A Verse. 
A half verse, is called 

A Hemistich. 

Two rhyming verses which complete the sense, are called 
A Couplet. 

Three verses which rhyme together, are 

A Triplet. 
Four or more lines, are called 

A Stanza. 

■* T j . ,, { Rhyming syllables, or 

Verses may end with j Khyminl words. 

" We come, we come, a little band, 
As children of the Nation ; 
"We are joined in heart, we are joined in hand, 
To keep the Declaration." 
Rem* — In the above stanza, the first and third lines end with rhyming 
words — the second and fourth, with rhyming syllables. 

A collection of syllables is called 

A Foot. 

A Foot may consist of j ^^SK" 

Feet of two syllables are the * 

Trochee . . . first long, second short — ^ 

Iambus . . . first short, second long >— ' — 

Pyrrhic. . . both short -— >^ 

Spondee . . both long 

Feet of three syllables are the 

Dactyl one long and two short — - ^ — ^ 

Anapcest two short and one long ^ ^ — 

Amphibrach . . . first short, second long, third short. . . ^ — —^ 
Tribrach three short ^* w ^ 

Rem. — Most English Poetry is written in Iambic, Trochaic, or Ana- 
paestic verse. 



POETRY VERSIFICATION. 197 

TROCHAIC VERSE. 

1. Hexameter •, or six feet. 

" On a | mountain | stretched be | neath a | hoary I willow, 
Lay a shepherd swain and viewed the rolling billow." 

2. Pentameter or five feet. 

11 Rouse him | like a | rattling | peal of | thunder." 

3. Tetrameter or four feet. 
On the | mountain's | top ap | pearing, 
Lo, the sacred herald stands ! 

4. Three feet. 

1 Come and | join our | singing." 
" How I | love to | see thee, 
Golden evening sun." 

5. Two feet. 
Rich the | treasure, 
Sweet the pleasure. 

6. One foot. 

Ringing, 
Singing. 

IAMBIC VERSE. 

1. Six feet. 
The praise | of Bac ( chus then | the sweet | musi | cian sung. 

2. Five feet. 

Oh, I | have loved | in youth's | fair ver | nal morn, 
To spread [ ima | gina | tion's wild | est wing. 

3. Four feet. 

There is | a calm | for those | who weep, 
A rest | for wea | ry pil | grims found. 

4. Three feet. 

What sought | they thus | afar? 
Bright jew | els of | the mine % 

5. Two feet. 

" I am | the grave." 

6. One foot. 
u My home." 



198 PAPwT IV. PROSODY VERSE. 

ANAPAESTIC VERSE. 

1 . Four feet. 
" But we stead I fastly gazed | on the face | of the dead. 

2. Three feet 

" And I loved | her the more | when I heard 
Such tenderness fall from her tongue." 

3. Two feet. 

" For the night | only draws 
A thin veil o'er the day." 

DACTYLIC VERSE. 

1. Four feet 

Come, ye dis | consolate, | where'er ye | languish. 

2. Three feet 

Earth has no | sorrows that | Heaven cannot | heal. 

3. Two feet. 

Free from anx | iety, 
Care and satiety. 

4. One foot 

Cheerfully, 
Fearfully. 

THE AMPHIBRACH. 

" There is a | bleak desert | where daylight | grows weary 
Of wasting its smile on a region so dreary." 

" With storm-dar | ing pinion | and sun-ga | zing eye, 
The gray forest eagle is king of the sky." 

" There's pleasure | in freedom | whatever | the season, 
That makes every object look lovely and fair." 

REMARKS. 

1. The first syllable of a verse is sometimes omitted. 

EXAMPLE. 

[ ] " And there | lay the ri | der, distort | ed and pale, 

With the dew | on his brow | and the rust | on his mail." 

2, A syllable is sometimes added to a line. 

EXAMPLES. 

Earth has no | sorrows that | heaven cannot | heal. 
A guar | dian an | gel o'er | my life | presid | ing, 
Doubling my pleasures and my cares dividing. 



FIGURES OF SPEECH. 199 

3. The different measures are sometimes combined in the 
same line. 

EXAMPLES 

" May comes, | May comes, | we have called | her long, 
May comes | o'er the moan | tains with light | and song ; 
We may trace | her steps | o'er the wak | ening earth, 
By the winds | which tell | of the vio | let's birth." 

Sometimes the last syllable of a line becomes the first syllable 
in the first foot of the next. 

EXAMPLE.. 

11 On the cold | cheek of death | smiles and ro | ses are blend | mg, 
And beau | ty immor | tal awakes | from the tomb." 

FIGtTRES. 

A Figure of speech is a licensed departure from 
the ordinary structure, or use of a word in a sen- 
tence. 

^. ( Grammatical or 

F ^ ures are \ Rhetorical. 

A Grammatical Figure is a deviation from the ordinary form 
or office of a word in a sentence. 

A Rhetorical Figure is a deviation from the ordinary applica- 
tion of words in the expression of thought. 

I. FIGURES MODIFYING THE FORM OF WORDS. 

These are called 

Aphceresis, Synceresis, 

Apocope, Ficeresis, 

Prosthesis, Syncope, 

Far ago ge, Tmesis. 

1. Aphceresis allows the elision of one or more of the first let- 
ters of a word. 

EXAMPLES. 

" 'Mid scenes of confusion." 
" And therefore thou may'st think my 'haviour light." — Juliet. 
" What ! have you let the false enchanter 'scape 1" — Milton. 

2. Apocope allows the elision of one or more of the final let- 
ters of a word. 

EXAMPLES. 

" And that is spoke, .with such a dying fall." 

" Tho' the whole loosened Spring around her blows." 

" T' whom th' archangel."-— Milton. 



200 PART IV. PROSODY FIGURES. 

3. Paragoge allows a syllable to be annexed to a word. 

EXAMPLES. 

" Without^ trump was proclamation made." — Thompson. 
" Nor deem that kindfo/ nature did him wrong." — Bryant. 

4. Synceresis allows two syllables to become one. 
Example — Extra session — ordinary session — extraordinary session. 

5. Prosthesis allows a syllable to be prefixed to a word. 

EXAMPLES. 

" Else would a maiden blush fopaint my cheek." — Juliet. 
li Let fall adown his silver beard some tears." — Thomson. 
11 The great archangel from his warlike toil 
Surceased." — Milton. 

6. Diceresis separates two vowels into different syllables. 
Examples — Cooperate — reiterate. 

7. Syncope allows one or more letters to be taken from the 
middle of a word. 

EXAMPLES. 

il Or serve they as a flow'ry verge to bind, 
The fluid skirts of that same wat'ry cloud, 
Lest it again dissolve and show'r the earth." — Milton. 

8. Tmesis allows a word to be inserted between the parts of a 
compound word. 

Example — " How much soever we may desire it." 

Obs. — Sometimes two figures are combined in the same word. 

Example — " Ah, whence is that sound which now larums his earl" 

II. FIGURES MODIFYING THE OFFICE OF WORDS. 

These are called 

Ellipsis, Syllipsis, 

Pleonasm, Enallage, 

Hyperbaton. 

1. Ellipsis allows the omission of one or more words neces- 
sary to complete the grammatical construction, when custom has 
rendered them unnecessary to complete the sense. 

EXAMPLES. 

" Thou art perched aloft on the beetling crag, 

And the waves are white below [ ]." 
" Unnumbered systems, [ ] suns, and worlds, 

Unite to worship thee, 
While thy majestic greatness fills 

Space, [ ] Time, [ ] Eternity." 



FIGURES — RHETORICAL. 20 1 

2. Pleonasm allows the introduction of words not necessary 
to complete the grammatical construction of a sentence. 

Example — "The moon herself is lost in heaven." 

3. Syllipsis allows a word to be used not in its literal sense. 
Example — " And there lay the steed with his nostril all wide." 

4. Enallage allows the use of one word for another of similar 
origin. 

Example — " A world devote to universal wreck." 

5. Hyperbaton allows the transposition of words in a sentence. 
Example — " His voice sublime, is heard afar ." 

FIGURES OF RHETORIC. 
They are 

Simile, Synecdoche, 

Metaphor, Apostrophe, 

Allegory, Interrogation, 

Personation, Exclamation, 

Irony, Vision, 

Hyperbole, Paralepsis, 

Antithesis, Climax, 

Metonomy, Anti-climax, 
Alliteration. 

1. A Simile is a direct comparison. 

Example — " The Assyrian came down like the wolf on the fold." 

2. A Metaphor is an indirect comparison. 

Example — " There is a tide in the affairs of men, 

Which, taken at the flood, leads on to fortune." 

3. An Allegory is an extended metaphor, by which a narra- 
tion, real or fictitious, is made to convey an analogous truth or 
fiction. 

Example — " Eternity's vast ocean lies before thee, 

There, there, Lorenzo, thy Clarissa sails, 

Give thy mind sea-room ; keep it wide of Earth — 

That rock of souls immortal ; cut thy cord j 

Weigh anchor ; spread thy sails ; call every wind ; 

Eye thy great Pole-star; make the land of life." — Young. 

4. Personation represents inanimate things as being endowed 
with life and volition. 

Examples — " And old Experience learns too late, 
That ail is vanity below." 
" Joy has her tears, and Transport has her death." 
9* 



202 PART IV. PROSODY FIGURES. 

5. Irony makes a sentence convey a meaning the opposite of 
its ordinary sense. 

Example — " And we, brave men, are satisfied, 
If we ourselves escape his sword." 

6. Hyperbole exaggerates the truth. 

EXAMPLE. 

" With fury driven, 
The waves mount up, and wash the face of heaven" 

7. Antithesis contrasts two or more things with each other. 

EXAMPLES. 

" Zealous though modest, innocent though free. 
" By honor and dishonor, by evil report and good report, as deceivers, and 
yet true." 

8. Metonomy puts one thing for another. 

The cause for the effect, 

The effect for the cause, 

The container for the thing contained, 

*An attribute or quality for the thing or person. 

Examples — " Shall the sword devour for ever %" 

" Thy hand, unseen, sustains the poles." 

" His ear is ever open to their cry." 

"I am much delighted in reading Homer" 

" He has returned to his cups again." 

" I'll plunge thee headlong in the whelming tide" 

9. Synecdoche puts a part for a whole, and a whole for a part. 

Example — " When the tempest stalks abroad, 
Seek the shelter of my roof" 
u Oh! ever cursed be the hand 
That wrought this ruin in the land." 

1 0. Apostrophe is a sudden transition from the subject of a dis- 
course to address a person or thing, present or absent. 

Example — " This is a tale for fathers and for mothers. Young men 
and young women ! you cannot understand it. 

E. Everett. 

1 1 . Interrogation expresses an assertion in the form of a ques- 
tion. 

Examples — " Looks it not like the king V 1 

t! He that formed the eye, shall he not see %" 

12. Exclamation expresses a sudden or intense emotion. 
Example — " O liberty ! O sound, once delightful to every Roman ear !" 

13. Vision represents past or future time as present to the view. 
Example— "I see them on their winding way, 

About their ranks the moonbeams play." 



QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW. 203 

Paralepsis is a figure by which a main truth is expressed in- 
cidentally, or with a professed effort of the speaker to conceal it. 

Example — " Without alluding to your habits of intemperance. I would ask, 
how can you attempt to justify your present inattention to 
business and the neglect of your family ?" 

Climax is that form of expression by which the thoughts are 
made to rise by successive gradations. 
Example — " He aspired to be the highest; above the people, above the 
authorities, above the laws, above his COUNTRY." 

Anti- Climax is the opposite of the climax. 

Example — " How has expectation darkened into anxiety, anxiety into 
dread, and dread into despair." — Irving. 

Alliteration is the repetition of the same letter at the begin- 
ning of two or more words immediately succeeding each other, 
or at short intervals. 

Examples — " Up the high hill he leaves a Auge, round stone." 

" He carves with classic chisel the Corinthian capital that 
crowns the column." 

aUESTIONS FOR REVIEW, 

Of what does Prosody treat ? 

Why are Pauses observed in reading 1 

How many sorts of Pauses 7 

How are Grammatical Pauses indicated ? 

When should a Comma be used 1 

When, a Semicolon'? — a Colon 1 — a Period 1 — a Dash'? 

When, a mark of Interrogation 1 — of Exclamation 1 

What is the sign of Apostrophe, and when should it be used? — 

Quotation 1 — Hyphen 1 — Brackets 1 — Parentheses 1 — Reference 1 — Brace 1 

—Caret 1— Index 1 

What is Composition'? — How many kinds'? 

How are words arranged in Prose Composition 1 

What are some of the various kinds of Prose Composition ? 

What is Poetry ? — What the most common varieties % 

What is Lyric Poetry } — Dramatic 1 — Epic 1 — Didactic 1 

What is an Epigram 1 — an Epitaph 1 — a Sonnet 1 

What is Versification 1 — What are the distinctions of Verse 1 

What is Blank Verse 7— What is Rhyme 1 

What is a Verse 1 — a Hemistich 7— a Couplet } — a Triplet % 

What is a Stanza 1 — What is a Foot % — Of what may it consist % 

What is a Trochee % — an Iambus 1 — a Pyrrhic 1 — a Spondee 1 

What is a Dactyl '?-— an Anapaest 1 — an Amphibrach 1 — a Tribrach 1 

What is a Figure of Speech 1 

What is a Grammatical Figure 1 — a Rhetorical Figure 1 

What is an Aphaeresis 1 — an Apocope 1 — a Prosthesis 1 — a Paragoge % 

What is a Synaeresis'? — a Diaeresis'? — a Syncope'? — a Tmesis? 

Wnat is an Ellipsis 1 — a Pleonasm % — a Syllepsis % — an Enallage 1 — 

a Hyperbaton 1 



204 PART IV. PROSODY ADDITIONAL EXAMPLES, 

What is a Simile?— a Metaphor?— an Allegory 1— a Personation ? — 
Irony ? 

What is a Hyperbole? — Vision ?~Paralepsis? — Antithesis'? — Meton- 
omy ? — Synecdoche ? 

What is an Apostrophe 1 — Interrogation ? — Exclamation ? — Climax ? — 
Alliteration 1 

ADDITIONAL EXAMPLES. 

"Whom the winds waft where'er the billows roll." 
u The man who forms his opinions entirely on that of another, can have 
no great respect for his own judgment." 

" I am the last of noble Edward's sons, 

Of whom thy father, Prince of Wales, was first." 
" O grant me, pitying Heaven, this last request, 
Since I must every loftier wish resign." 

" My heart is awed within me when I think of the great 
miracle that still goes on in silence round me." 

" The smoke of their wigwams arose in every valley, from Hudson's 
Bay to the farthest Florida, from the ocean to the Mississippi and the 
lakes." — Story. 

u Meek Dian's crest 
Floats through the azure air." — Byron. 

" Beneath them lay the wished-for spot." — Pollok. 
11 My soul has ranged 
By thee sustained, and lighted by the stars." — Young. 

" A sea 

Of Glory streams along the Alpine heights." — Byron. 
" A wretch, from thick polluted air, 

Darkness, and stench and suffocating damp 

And dungeon horrors, by kind fate discharged." — Young. 
" His passions died — 

Died, all but dreary solitary Pride." — Pollok. 

" And sorrow, and Repentance, and Despair, 
Among them walked." — Pollok. 

" Like Murray, he did not conduct the understanding through the pain- 
ful subtlety of argument — nor was he, like Townshend, forever on the 
rock of exertion." — Robertson. 

" For solidity of reasoning, force of sagacity, and wisdom of conclusion, 
under such a complication of difficulties, no nation or body of men can 
stand in preference to the General Congress of Philadelphia." — Pitt. 

" On every side, sweet sunny spots of verdure smile towards him from 
among the melancholy heather." — Wilson. 

" Was it the temple — with all its courts, the dazzling splendor of its 
materials, the innumerable multitudes, the priesthood in their gorgeous 
attire, the king with all the insignia of royalty, on his throne of burnished 
brass, the music, the radiant cloud filling the temple, the sudden fire 
flashing upon the altar, the whole nation upon their knees," — Milman. 



APPENDIX. 



NOTE A. 

Def. Orthography is that branch of the Science of Language 
which treats of Letters — their forms, their offices, and their 
combinations in the structure of Words. 

Obs. The English Language has twenty-six letters, which 

are distinguished by their \ TT 

The various forms of letters are exhibited in the following 
table : 



ROMAN. 


ITALIC. 


OLD ENGLISH. 


Capitals. Small. 


Capitals. Small. 


Capitals. Small. 


A a 


A a 


@L a 


B b 


B b 


33 b 


C c 


C c 


<£ c 


D d 


D d 


20 * 


E e 


E e 


JB z 


F f 

G g 

H h 


F f 
G g 
H h 


t I 


I i 

J i 


I i 


It fc 


K k 


K k 


% I 


L 1 


L I 


ft n 


M. m 


M m 


N n 


N n 


# t) 


O o 


O o 


1 * 


P p 


P p 


<& q 


a q 

R r 


Q q 

R r 


& t 


S s 


S s 


U u 


T 


T t 


V b 


U u 


U u 


m to 


V v 


V v 


X V 


W w 


W w 


3T 2 


X x 


X x 


% f 


Y y 


Y y 




Z z 


Z z 





206 APPENDIX CAPITAL LETTERS. 

Obs. Roman letters are in most common use in the English 
language. 

Italic letters are used in words of special importance, and 
sometimes in sentences. 

In the sacred Scriptures, words supplied by the translators to 
complete the construction of sentences according to the English 
idiom, are printed in Italics. 

Old English letters are used for variety or ornament — in 
title pages, etc. 

Obs. — The small or " lower case " letters are used in forming 
words, with the following exceptions, which provide for the use 
of 

CAPITAL LETTERS. 

Obs. — A word should begin with a capital letter, 

1 . When it is the first word of a distinct proposition. 

2. When it is a Proper Name, or a word immediately derived 
from a Proper Name. 

Examples — Boston — William — American — Vermonter. 

3. When it is a name or appellation of the Supreme Being. 

Examples — God — Saviour— Holy Spirit — Lord— Omnipotent. 

4. When it is the first word of a line in poetry. 
Example — Twinkle, twinkle, little star, 

How I wonder what you are ; 
Up above the world so high, 
Like a diamond in the sky." 

5. When it is a principal word in a title of a book or office, 
and sometimes when it is a word of special importance, or used 
technically. 

Examples — " Willard's History of the United States." 
" Burke on the Sublime and Beautiful." 
" The Subject of a Verb should not take the place of the 
Object." 

6. When it commences a direct quotation. 
Examples — " The footman, in his usual phrase, 

Comes up with ' Madam, dinner stays. 5 " 
" Wo to him that saith unto the wood, ' Awake ' " 

7. When it constitutes the Pronoun u I," or the Exclama- 
tion " 0." 

Examples — " O, I have loved in youth's fair vernal morn, 
To spread Imagination's wildest wing." 



LETTERS WORDS. 207 

8. When it is a Common Noun, fully personified. 

Examples—" Sure i Fame's trumpet hear," — Cowley. 
" Here Strife and Faction rule the day." 

Obs. — Letters are of various sizes, and have their correspond- 
ing appropriate names. The varieties of type in most common 
use are the following : 

1. Pica.— ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUV 
WXYZ . abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz. 

2. Small Pica,— ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUV 
WXYZ. abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz. 

3. Long Primer.— ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVW 
XYZ. abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz. 

4. Bourgeois,— ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPaRSTUVWXYZ. 

abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz. 

5. Brevier.— ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPaRSTUVWXYZ. abcdefgh 
ij klmnopqrstuv wxyz. 

6. Minion.- ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ. abcdefghijklm 

nopqrstuvwxyz. 

7. Agate— ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ. abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz. 

8. Pearl.— ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQ.RSTUVWXYZ. abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz. 

WORDS. 

Obs. — Words are composed of one or more letters, and, like 
Sentences and Phrases , consist of 

Principal Parts and 
Adjuncts. 
The Principal Parts of a word are the letters which indicate 
the principal sound. They are called Vowels. 



EXAMPLES. 



a in mate, 
e in me. 
oi in toil, 
ou in sound. 



a in hat. 
e in met. 
ae in aphaeresis. 
oe in subpoena. 



The Adjuncts of a word are the letters prefixed or added to 
the Principal Parts, to modify their sound. They are called 
Consonants. 

EXAMPLES. 

m in mate, me. h in hat, hate, 

t in mate, time. s in aphaeresis, sound. 

1 in toil, lame. v in vile, twelve. 

c in cider, cane. p in post, happy. 



208 APPEN DIX ABBREVIATIONS. 

Obs. — When a word has but one Principal Part it is pro- 
nounced by one impulse of the voice, and is then called 
a Monosyllable. 
Examples — Efand — fall — me — so— strength. 

Obs.— When a word has two Principal Parts it requires two 
articulations, and is then called 

a Dissyllable. 
Examples — Handsome — falling — strengthen — holy. 

Obs. — Generally, a word has as many syllables as it has Prin- 
cipal Parts. 

Obs. — Two letters may form one Principal Part of a word 
when they are placed together, and combine to form one sound. 
Examples — oi in toil — ou in sound — ai in fair. 

Obs. — A letter, ordinarily used as a vowel is sometimes added 
to a syllable or word to modify the sound of other letters, and is 
then an Adjunct. 
Examples — e in time — y in they— i in claim. 

Obs. — One or more of the letters constituting a word are 
sometimes used as the representatives of that word. These are 
called 

ABBREVIATIONS. 

The most common abbreviations are the following : 

A. C Before Christ, .from the Latin. .Ante Christum. 

A. B Bachelor of Arts " Artium Baccalaureus. 

A. D In the year of our Lord. . ." Anno Domini. 

C Master of Arts /« Artium Magister. 

A. M... < In the year of the world. ." Anno Mundi. 

( In the "forenoon " Ante Meridiem. 

B. D Bachelor of Divinity " Baccalaureus Divinitatis. 

D. D Doctor of Divinity " Doctor Divinitatis. 

e. g For example " Exempli gratia. 

i. e That is " Id est. 

LL. D. . ..Doctor of Laws H Legum Doctor. 

L. S Place of the seal " Locus Sigilli. 

Messrs. . . Gentlemen French . . Messieurs. 

M. D Doctor of Medicine Latin . . Medicinse Doctor. 

MS Manuscript " Scriptum Manus. 

IN . B Take notice « Nota Bene. 

p M ( Afternoon " Post Meridiem. 

) Post master. 

P. S Postscript " Post Scriptum. 

S. T. D. . . Doctor of Theology " Sanctae Theologian Doctor. 



PREFIXES AND SUFFIXES. 209 



NOTE B. 

The English langage has its foundation in the Saxon. Addi- 
tions have, from year to year, been made to it, from the Latin, 
the Greek, the French, the Italian, the German, and other Eu- 
ropean languages — partly by the transfer of words from those 
languages to the English — but chiefly by the addition of Pre- 
fixes and Suffixes. 

Of the Prefixes the most common are the following. 

A on, in, at aboard, amidst. 

A } C away. 

Ab > from 1 abduct. 

Abs } f abstain. 

A 

An 



Ad 
Af 
Ag 
Al 
At 



f — srX ous ' 



.to 



adjourn. 

affix. 

aggregate 

allure. 

attend. 



Ante before antedate. 

Anti against antipathy. 

Be to act or make bewail. 

Bene well benevolence. 

Bi two biennially. 

Circum about circumnavigate. 

Con with confer. 

Contra against contradict. 

De from debar. 

Dis not disown. 

E "| reject. 

Ec I j. J eccentric. 

Ef \ f rom < efface. 

Ex J [exclude. 

Extra beyond extraordinary. 

En to make ennoble. 

For forsake. 

Fore forego. 

Hemi half , . . . hemisphere. 

In ^ f inform. 

^ m I «•« «» ««* j immerse. 

Trp > in or not < . ,, 

Ig j | ignoble. 

II J [ illiterate. 

Inter between intervene. 

Male bad malevolence. 

Mis wrong misjudge. 

Mono ♦ one monotone. 



210 APPENDIX PREFIXES AND SUFFIXES. 

Non not nonconformable. 

Ne not never. 

Ob ) C object. 

Oc > against 1 occur. 

Op ) ( oppose. 

Out beyond outrun. 

Over above overlay. 

Poly many polysyllable. 

Pen almost penumbra. 

Per through pervade. 

Post after postscript. 

Pre before predict. 

Pro .forth produce. 

Re make refine. 

Se from select. 

Syl ) C syllogism. 

Sym > with ■? symphony. 

Syn ) ( synchronism. 

Sub 1 f subscribe. 

Sue I J succumb. 

Suf J> under ^ suffix. 

Sup I support. 

Sus J (^sustain. 

Super over superintend. 

Trans beyond transfer. 

Un. . . not unknown. 

Unde under underwrite. 

Up up uphold. 

With against withstand. 

Rem. — The above constitute the most important Prefixes and the most 
common definitions. But to them there are many exceptions — exceptions 
almost as important as the rules. If the student would perfect himself in 
this department of the science, he may consult " McElligot's Manual op 
Orthography and Definition." 

Rem. — For an extended list of Suffixes the same reference is made. 



NOTE C. 

Most nouns adopted from the Latin, Greek, French, and 
Hebrew languages, have their plural forms also in those lan- 
guages. Those most commonly used in English composition 
are the following : 

Latin or Greek words form their Plurals by changing the termination i s 

into e s. 



Amanuensis, 


amanuenses. 


Axis, 


axes. 


Antithesis, 


antitheses. 


Basis, 


bases. 


Analysis, 


analyses. 


Borealis, 


boreales. 



PLURALS OF NOUNS. 



211 



Crisis, 

Ellipsis, 

Emphasis, 

Hypothesis, 

Metamorphosis, 



Ephemeris, 

Apex, 

Appendix, 

Calx, 

Alumnus, 
Focus, 

Fungus, 
Genius. 



crises. Oasis, 

ellipses. Parenthesis, 

emphases. Phasis, 

hypotheses. Thesis, 
metamorphoses. 

The following change i s into des: 
ephemerides. j Chrysalis, 

The following change x into ces: 

Index, 



apices. 
i apexes. 
\ appendices. 

appendixes. 
[ calces. 

calxes. 



Radix, 
Vertex, 
Vortex, 



oases. 

parentheses, 
phases, 
theses. 



chrysalides. 

C indices. 
\ indexes. 

radices. 
( vertices. 
\ vertexes. 

vortices. 



Nouns in us have their Plurals in i. 



alumni. 

foci, 
i fungi. 
| funguses. 
I genii, 
i geniuses. 



Magus, 

Nucleus, 

Obolus, 

Radius, 

Stimulus, 



magi. 

nuclei. 

oboli. 

radii. 

stimuli. 



Addendum, 
Animalculum, 
Arcanum, 
Automaton. 

Criterion, 

Corrigendum, 
Datum, 
Desideratum, 
Effluvium, 

Encomium, 

Erratum, 
Ephemeron, 



Bandit, 

Beau, 

Cherub, 

Dogma, 

Formula, 
Genus, 



Nouns in o n and um have their Plurals in a 
addenda. 



animaicula. 

arcana. 

automata. 
C criteria. 
\ criterions. 

corrigenda. 

data. 

desiderata. 

effluvia. 

S encomia, 
encomiums, 
errata, 
ephemera. 



Gymnasium, 

Medium, 

Memorandum, 

Momentum, 

Phenomenon, 

Scholium, 

Speculum, 
Stratum, 



gymnasia. 

gymnasiums. 

media, 

mediums. 

memoranda. 

memorandums. 

momenta. 

momentums. 

phenomena. 
( scholia. 
( scholiums. 

specula. 

strata. 



The following Nouns are thus formed : 



S banditti, 
bandits, 
beaux. 
i cherubim 
( cherubs. 

S dogmata, 
dogmas. 
( formulae. 
( formulas, 
genera. 



Lamina, 

Larva, 

Miasma, 

Monsieur, 

Nebula, 

Seraph, 

Stamen, 
Viscus, 



laminae, 

larvae. 

miasmata. 

messieurs. 

nebulae. 
\ seraphim, 
i seraphs, 
j Stamina. 
[ stamens. 
' viscera. 



212 APPENDIX. 



NOTE D. 



For expositions of the various offices of Participles, the stu- 
dent is referred to 

" Verbal Nouns," p. 44. 

" Verbal Adjectives," pp. 62, 63, and 164, 165. 

"Participles," pp. 71, 72, and 125-128. 

" Exercises," pp. 75, 76, and 133, 134. 

" Twofold office of some words," p. 105. 



NOTE E. 

For illustrations of the office of Nouns and Pronouns in the 
Possessive Case the student is referred to 

" Possessive Case of Nouns and Pronouns," pp. 49, 50, and 
142, 143. 

"Possessive Adjectives," pp. 61, and 163, 164. 

" Twofold office of some words," p. 100, and p. 118, Rem. 2. 



OPINIONS 

or 

EXPERIENCED TEACHERS. 



From Alonzo Beebe, Esq., County Superintendent of Common Schools, 
Ontario county, New York. 

Canandaigua, July 14, 1846. 

My Dear Sir: 
I have been anxious to write to you for some time, but various 
circumstances have prevented until now. I have been thinking about 
your plan of teaching grammar. I was formerly employed for several 
years, almost exclusively, in teaching that science ; and whether I may 
claim to be a competent judge of the subject or not, I have certainly had 
some experience in it, to say the least. 

I am decidedly of the opinion that your mode of teaching English gram- 
mar is superior to any which I have ever seen practised. 

Could you publish a treatise, setting forth your plan with such clear- 
ness as to enable teachers to comprehend it readily (and I see no difficulty 
in doing that), I believe it would soon take the place of all the present sys- 
tems, as a purely practical work. 

I think you might thus render an incalculable benefit to the pupil and 
teacher engaged in this department of education. Allow me to express 
the hope that you will be induced to publish such a work, and place it be- 
fore the public with the least possible delay. I have great confidence in 
its usefulness and success. Yours, very respectfully, 

Alonzo • Beebe. 



Prom Frederick S. Jewelle, Teacher in Canandaigua Academy. 
It has been my good fortune to have had an early opportunity of be- 
coming well acquainted with Mr. S. W. Clark's system of English 
grammar. I have not only carefully examined it, but have tested it to a 
satisfactory degree, in my own practice as a teacher. Notwithstanding 
the influence of early prejudices and long-established associations in favor 
of the present received systems, my own knowledge of its character, and 
my own observations and experience as to its practical working, have 
convinced me that it is pre-eminently the true S3^stem. I regret that I 
could not have become acquainted with it sooner; but late as it may be, 
I trust 1 shall never have to do with any other. 

Frederick S. Jewelle. 
Canandaigua Academy, Nov. 9, 1846. 



RECOMMENDATIONS. 

From E. W. Curtis, Esq., Ex- Superintendent of Onondaga county, 

Geddes, April 2, 1846. 

S. W. Clark, A. M. : 

Dear Sir, — The Onondaga Teachers' Institute will commence its semi- 
annual session on the 13th instant, and continue two weeks. Will you 
please attend on some day or evening, and deliver a lecture on grammar 1 
The Institute is greatly indebted to you for your interesting and instruc- 
tive lectures delivered before it last fall. I think you have started the 
right ball in motion on the subject of grammar, and I hope you will keep 
it before the people. I believe the time has arrived for the people to relieve 
themselves of the verbiage and nonsense of our present grammar books, 
and adopt a system which shall be more simple, and much better adapted 
to teach the grammar of our language. 

Please inform me at what time you can attend, so that I can give a 
suitable notice. Very respectfully yours, &c, 

E. W. Curtis, 
President of the Teachers 1 Institute, 



Resolutions adopted by the Ontario county Teachers 1 Institute, held at the 
'Court House, Canaudaigua, October, 1846. 

Resolved, That Professor S. W. Clark's system of English grammar 
possesses a striking common-sense originality and beauty, which are cal- 
culated to render it eminently practical and useful ; and farther 

Resolved, That in the opinion of this body, the interests of this branch 
of English science and of Education at large, demand that, as soon as may 
be practicable, this system in detail, should be presented in a complete 
and permanent form, by the author, to the public. 



From A. R. Simmons, Ex- Superintendent of Bristol. 
Mr. Clark : 

Dear Sir, — From a thorough examination of your method of teach- 
ing the English language, I am prepared to give it my unqualified appro- 
bation. It is a plan original and beautiful — well adapted to the capacities 
of learners of every age and stage of advancement. Believing that the 
introduction into our Common Schools and Academies of a text-book on 
grammar containing your system and method, will greatly facilitate the 
acquisition of the Science of the English Language, I respectfully sug- 
gest that it be permitted to come before the public. 
Respectfully yours, 

A. R. Simmons, Grammar Teacher. 
Bristol, August 38, 1847. 



DAVIES' 
COURSE OF MATHEMATICS. 



DAVIES' FIRST LESSONS IN ARITHMETIC— For beginners. 

DAVIES' ARITHMETIC— Designed for the use of Academies and 
Schools. 

KEY TO DAVIES' ARITHMETIC. 

DAVIES' UNIVERSITY ARITHMETIC— Embracing the Science 
of Numbers, and their numerous applications. 

KEY TO DAVIES' UNIVERSITY ARITHMETIC. 

DAVIES' ELEMENTARY ALGEBRA— Being an Introduction to 
the Science, and forming a connecting link between Arithmetic and 
Algebra. 

KEY TO DAVIES' ELEMENTARY ALGEBRA. 

DAVIES' ELEMENTARY GEOMETRY.— This work embraces the 
elementary principles of Geometry. The reasoning is plain and con- 
cise, but at the same time strictly rigorous. 

DAVIES' ELEMENTS OF DRAWING AND MENSURATION 

— Applied to the Mechanic Arts. 

DAVIES' BOURDON'S ALGEBRA— Including Sturms' Theorem,— 
Being an Abridgment of the work of M. Bourdon, with the addition of 
practical examples. 

DAVIES' LEGENDRE'S GEOMETRY and TRIGONOMETRY. 

— Being an Abridgment of the work of M. Legendre, with the addition 
of a Treatise on Mensuration of Planes and Solids, and a Table ot 
Logarithms and Logarithmic Sines. 

DAVIES' SURVEYING— With a description and plates of the Theod- 
olite, Compass, Plane-Table, and Level : also, Maps of the Topo- 
graphical Signs adopted by the Engineer Department — an explana- 
tion of the method of surveying the Public Lands, and an Elementary 
Treatise on Navigation. 

DAVIES' ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY— Embracing the Equa- 
tions of the Point and Straight Line — of the Conic Sections — of 
the Line and Plane in Space — also, the discussion of the General 
Equation of the second degree, and of Surfaces of the second order. 

DAVIES' DESCRIPTIVE GEOMETRY,— With its application to 
Spherical Projections. 

DAVIES' SHADOWS and LINEAR PERSPECTIVE. 

DAVIES' DIFFERENTIAL and INTEGRAL CALCULUS. 



WILLAED'S HISTORY 

OF 
OR 

REPUBLIC OF AMERICA. 

ILLUSTRATED WITH MAPS AJYD ENGRAVINGS. 



TWO EDITIONS. 



The Academical, or Library Edition. 8vo. 

AND THE 

Abridged, or School Edition, l8mo. 



The large work is designed as a Text Book for Academies 
and Female Seminaries : and also for District Sclwols and 
Family Libraries. 

The small work, being an Abridgment of the same, is de- 
signed as a Text Book for Common Schools. 

It commences with the discovery of America, 1492, and 
goes down to the death of General Harrison, 1842, (350 
years.) The originality of the plan consists in dividing the 
time into periods, of which the beginnings and terminations 
are marked by important events; and constructing a series of 
maps illustrating the progress of the settlement of the country, 
and the regular advances of civilization. 

It has a chronographic chart, which gives, by simple inspec- 
tion, a view of the divisions of the work, and the events 
which mark the beginning and termination of each period in- 
to which it is divided. 

A full chronological table will be found, in which all the 
events of the History are arranged in tne order of time. 

There is appended to the work the Constitution of the 
United States, and a series of questions adapted to each chap- 
ter, so that the work may be used in schools and for private 
instruction. 

The Hon. Daniel Webster says, of an early edition of the 
above work, in a letter to the author, " J keep it near me, as a 
Book of Reference, accurate in facts and dates." 











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